李艦君 陳艷紅 楊傳鳴
(1.東北農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué),黑龍江 哈爾濱 150030;2.黑龍江八一農(nóng)墾大學(xué),黑龍江 大慶 161139)
隨著知識經(jīng)濟和國際化進程的深入發(fā)展,高質(zhì)量科技論文英文摘要的撰寫受到國內(nèi)學(xué)者的高度重視。英文摘要是科技論文的重要組成部分,是科技論文內(nèi)容的高度濃縮,涵蓋了科技論文的基本要素,具有強大的信息性。正是由于英文摘要具備獨立性強、信息密度高、語言精練等特點,國外學(xué)者可通過對英文摘要的檢索獲取當前中文科技論文的信息,這大大提高了科技論文的檢索效率和利用率;同時,國際檢索機構(gòu)(SCI,EI,ISTP)也都將英文摘要的撰寫是否符合檢索要求作為其收錄的一個重要指標。
國內(nèi)期刊多數(shù)為中文期刊,要讓國內(nèi)中文期刊中的文獻被國外學(xué)者認可,被國際檢索機構(gòu)收錄,更好參與國際學(xué)術(shù)交流和擴大國際影響力,最直接、高效的媒介就是通過英文摘要。當前,很多國內(nèi)學(xué)者科技論文的學(xué)術(shù)水平和質(zhì)量很高,卻難以進入國際檢索機構(gòu),究其原因可能“在于其科技論文英文摘要的撰寫不符合國際檢索機構(gòu)的收錄要求”[1]。因此,國內(nèi)學(xué)者應(yīng)該認真研究符合國際檢索機構(gòu)收錄要求的英文摘要撰寫方法,重視英文摘要的規(guī)范化撰寫。
語篇是指“一個任何長度的、語義完整的口語或書面語的段落”[2]。語篇的形式多樣、豐富,可以是口頭的或書面的、散文或詩歌、對話或獨白。從一個詞、一個詞組、一個句子到一個句群、一個段落、一篇文章,甚至從瞬間的一句簡單求救到一整天的會議討論都可以是一個語篇。語篇表達的是意義而不是形式,是語言的語義單位,與詞語、句子的性質(zhì)不同。語篇與句子之間的區(qū)別并不表現(xiàn)為大小關(guān)系而是體現(xiàn)關(guān)系,不是由句子組成,而是體現(xiàn)句子。
銜接是一個語義概念,是指形成語篇的意義關(guān)系,當在語篇中某個成分的解釋需要依賴對另外一個成分的解釋時,銜接便應(yīng)運而生。銜接是“語篇內(nèi)標記不同句際關(guān)系的形式連接,是使作者或說話人建立跨越句子邊界的關(guān)系,并使篇章內(nèi)的句子扭結(jié)在一起的語篇建構(gòu)手段”[3]。連貫是指文章的詞、句子、句群、段落在概念上、邏輯上是合理的,是一個整體而不是詞和句子簡單的堆積。它是一個完整語篇內(nèi)部深層意義的關(guān)聯(lián),主要體現(xiàn)在語篇的深層結(jié)構(gòu)上。
當前,有不少學(xué)者認為,表面上看似銜接的語篇本質(zhì)上未必連貫,而連貫的語篇也未必體現(xiàn)在銜接手段上,但很多語篇實例和相關(guān)研究表明,銜接和連貫密不可分,語篇的銜接手段對于語篇的連貫起著重要作用。只有銜接手段而沒有連貫特征的語言不能稱之為語篇;沒有銜接手段而只有連貫特征的語篇閱讀時也令人費解。因此,銜接和連貫是相互依存的,銜接手段可以使表意更加明確,邏輯更加清晰,語篇更加連貫,結(jié)構(gòu)更加嚴謹和流暢。
Halliday&Hasan于1976年出版專著Cohesion in English,標志著銜接理論的創(chuàng)立。Crewe對香港大學(xué)英語學(xué)習者英文寫作中邏輯銜接詞的多用與少用進行分析,研究發(fā)現(xiàn)英語學(xué)習者對銜接詞的使用比較混亂,邏輯不清晰[4]。Granger&Tyson采用語料庫的方法,對比法國高級學(xué)習者和英語本族語者的英文寫作,發(fā)現(xiàn)法國高級學(xué)習者傾向過多使用增補型銜接詞,過少使用對比型銜接詞[5]。
國內(nèi)對于語篇銜接的研究相對較晚。胡壯麟于1994年發(fā)表專著《語篇的銜接與連貫》[6],對銜接和連貫做了詳盡闡述。此后,很多學(xué)者對語篇銜接手段的研究逐漸深入。近幾年來,國內(nèi)一些學(xué)者對學(xué)術(shù)論文英文摘要的語篇銜接手段進行了研究。李平用主位推進理論對學(xué)術(shù)期刊英文摘要的語篇組織模式進行分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)英文摘要多由5~7句組成,分布上有所側(cè)重,語篇組織呈現(xiàn)出較為清晰的主位推進模式等特點[7]。國防從語篇的角度對兩篇中英作者的學(xué)術(shù)論文英文摘要進行對比分析,討論了如何以語篇結(jié)構(gòu)、銜接、連貫及句際關(guān)系為切入點,簡明、準確、規(guī)范地完成摘要寫作,歸納總結(jié)了學(xué)術(shù)論文英文摘要的一般原則和方法[8]。
總結(jié)國內(nèi)外學(xué)者對語篇銜接理論的研究,不難發(fā)現(xiàn)當前學(xué)者多從定性角度研究語篇銜接手段的應(yīng)用,缺乏對語篇銜接手段的實證研究,不乏存在一定的主觀臆斷,語篇銜接理論的定義和分類亦缺乏系統(tǒng)性。
本研究以Halliday(1976)的語篇銜接理論為基礎(chǔ),通過建立國際期刊科技論文英文摘要語料庫,采用語料庫研究方法等分析當前國際期刊科技論文英文摘要中語篇銜接手段的方式與特點,從而提高國內(nèi)學(xué)者撰寫科技論文英文摘要的寫作水平,使得學(xué)術(shù)論文符合國際刊物的投稿標準。
通過總結(jié)分析當前學(xué)者的研究,為使研究結(jié)果更具科學(xué)性、客觀性,本研究選取影響因子較高的幾本國際期刊(例如:American Journal of Agricultual Economics,SCI影響因子近五年為1.607)的英文摘要100篇,建立國際期刊學(xué)術(shù)論文英文摘要語料庫,共計18978詞,本研究所有例句均來自此語料庫,語料來源真實,因此研究方法更具創(chuàng)新性。
本文參考國內(nèi)外學(xué)者對于語篇銜接手段的分類,最終采用Halliday&Hasan(1976)對語篇銜接手段的分類,將銜接手段分為指稱、替代、省略、連接和詞匯銜接,進而分析如何通過使用這些銜接手段使科技論文的英文摘要更具連貫性。
指稱表示的是語義關(guān)系,通過代詞等語法關(guān)系來體現(xiàn)。它不受制于嚴格的語法條件,其指稱項不必與其所指的項目屬于同一語法類別。Halliday&Hasan依據(jù)指稱成分的不同,將之分為三類:人稱指稱(Personal Reference)、指示指稱(Demonstrative Reference)和比較指稱(Comparative Reference)。
1.人稱指稱:
(1)After a 10%increase in agro-manufactured export prices,I find that:(a)the employment probability would increase by 1.36 percentage points,matched by a decline in the unemployment probability of 0.75 percentage points and an increase in labor market participation of 0.61 percentage points.
(2)We conducted surveys on 33 trails within National Forests in Colorado and Montana to test whether forest fires affected recreation demand.
(3)This allows us to study the impacts of ageing on consumption and harvesting decisions as well as to see how the impact of taxes changes among different age groups of forest-owners.
(4)Our analysis of these two cases and various CO2e price levels indicate different responses in carbon stock and flux,forest land area and management,forest product prices,and forest conditions.
(5)However,as with all empirical tests of this hypothesis conducted to date,ours focus only on the demand side of the hypothesis.
例1至例5中,第一人稱代詞“I/we/us/our/ours”在語篇中主要指稱的對象是作者本人(其中作者可以是一位或多位)。當?shù)谝蝗朔Q代詞做主語時,后面常見的動詞或動詞短語有adopt,apply,believe,conduct,consider,compare,develop,employ,estimate,evaluate,find,focus on,identify,investigate,illustrate,modify,present,provide,report,show,solve,study,use等;后面長接的名詞有analysis,application,article,benefits,results,study等。
因此,在撰寫科技論文的英文摘要時,恰當使用第一人稱代詞,不僅可以幫助國內(nèi)學(xué)者提高自身撰寫英文摘要的水平,同時也可以幫助我們改變對于科技論文英文摘要中第一人稱代詞使用的錯誤看法。巧妙的使用第一人稱代詞,能夠更好更客觀地展示學(xué)術(shù)成果,也能夠更快提升作者的知名度及學(xué)術(shù)成果的影響力。
2.指示指稱:
(6)The approach aims to determine the optimal stock of each species to be maintained in the stand conditional on the observed stand state and timber prices,whereas thinning in density is given by the difference between the existing and the optimal stocks.
(7)This paper provides panel data evidence on the question of how forest endowment and economic activity affect net exports of industrial round wood and forest products.
(8)These results demonstrate the importance of estimating public values for forest protection in terms of heterogeneous groups rather than as a homogeneous whole.
例6至例8中,作者通過“the”加名詞或是“this/that”加名詞來敘述作者當下的研究,例如“the approach/article/study”或“this approach/argument/article/study”或“these approaches/data/experiments/findings/measures/observations/results”等。其實,作者在使用第一人稱代詞和指示指稱表達當下研究時,從語義的角度講是相似的,比如“the article investigates”等于“I investigate”,“this study advances”等于“I advance”等。作者在撰寫科技論文的英文摘要時使用指示指稱,主要是為了避免用第一人稱代詞稱呼自己而已。
因此,作者在撰寫科技論文的英文摘要時,無論使用第一人稱代詞還是指示指稱,都可以表達當下論文所研究的目的、意義、學(xué)術(shù)成果等。
3.比較指稱:
(9)Further analysis indicated that consumptive forest users(i.e.,hunters and anglers)held forest protection values that were sensitive to a change forest condition,while non-consumptive forest users(i.e.,campers and hikers)held values that were insensitive to the same condition change.
例9中,兩類不同用戶對森林保護的態(tài)度是不同的,兩個分句不僅可以由“while”進行銜接,而且可以由表示相同關(guān)系的銜接詞“same”進行銜接,從而達到更好的對比效果。
替代是指語篇中一個項目由另外一個項目所替代的過程,是一種語法關(guān)系不是語義關(guān)系。例如:
(10)We use two experimental valuation methods to estimate consumer demand for genetically modified golden rice.The first one is an open-ended choice experiment(OECE)where participants name the quantities of golden rice and conventional rice demanded at each of several price combinations,one of which will be randomly chosen as binding.
(11)In general,we find that tax effects are dependent on the forest-owner’s age.Age tends to intensify the increasing effect of the forest bequest tax on harvesting.The same is true with respect to the decreasing effect on harvesting of the inheritance tax imposed on non-forest assets.
(12)Results indicate that Montana hikers have lower net benefits($12/trip)than Colorado visitors do($55/trip).
例10中,“one”代替了上句所提到的“experimental valuation method”。例11中,“the same”翻譯成“同樣的(道理)”代替前一句里所表達的涵義。例12中,“do”代替前半句中的動詞“have”。這三個例子中所使用的替代,緊密聯(lián)系上下文的語境,用一個成分解釋另一個成分,從而避免了句子中某個成分的重復(fù),使得句子清晰、明了、有機的結(jié)合在一起,形成一個緊密的語篇。
省略是指語篇中的某個部分的缺省或省略,雖未說出,但仍可被讀者所理解。例如:
(13)The model permitted to estimate in monetary terms two possible costs to be supported:the first is expressed as the expected damage to the forest crop on the basis of the current obtainable woody assortments and the second referred to the potential expenses to pay in order to mitigate the risk.Finally,the framework was tested on an area of central Italy(Tuscany region).
(14)We modify the usual practice of obtaining a single willingness-to-pay(WTP)value by using alternative questionnaire scenarios and conducting tests to examine i)household and recreation group value sensitivity to forest condition,and ii)recreation group differences in WTP for forest protection.A first sample of southeastern U.S.households was asked to value a forest protection program for a spruce-fir forest showing no impact from insect disturbance or atmospheric deposition.The second was asked to value a protection program for a forest already experiencing impact from insect infestation and air pollution.
例13中,第一句中的賓語為“two possible costs”,后面緊接冒號,表示后面的語句為解釋、說明,因此冒號后的“the first”和“the second”分別代表“the first cost”和“the second cost”,雖然作者沒有明確表述,讀者依然可以理解其意思,同時使得整個語篇簡潔、清晰。例14中,倒數(shù)第二句的開頭為“A first sample of southeastern U.S.households”,因此“the second”相當于“the second sample of southeastern U.S.households”。從語法角度講,撰寫句子時應(yīng)當將句子表述完整,使意思明確,但在具體語境中,“sample of southeastern U.S.households”的涵義非常清晰,為了避免重復(fù),不需要再次提出,從而使文章簡潔、明了。
連接是指通過過渡性的詞語(連接詞)體現(xiàn)句子之間的連接關(guān)系,即通過顯性的連接詞使語篇的各個部分有機連接在一起。Halliday&Hasan依據(jù)連接所表示的不同語義關(guān)系,將之分為四類:增補關(guān)系(Additive)、轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系(Adversative)、因果關(guān)系(Causal)和時間關(guān)系(Temporal)。
1.增補關(guān)系。增補關(guān)系又分為四種類型,即簡單增補、強調(diào)的復(fù)合體、同位語(關(guān)系)和對比。例如:
(15)This paper provides panel data evidence on the question of how forest endowment and economic activity affect net exports of industrial round wood and forest products.
(16)The finding of abnormal returns revealed that all six events generated the expected positive or negative returns,and among them,four were statistically significant.
(17)In addition,wastepaper demand has also become more sensitive to changes in energy prices,and its use increases with increases in the price of energy.
(18)In particular,the industries using sawlogs would need to get back to the high levels of production seen a few years ago.For instance,policies leading to the increased use of wood in construction would support the renewable energy goals as well.
(19)On the other hand,net exports do have an impact on timber production.While historical differences in forest industries and resources still exist between developed countries the role of forest resources is becoming less important in shaping the development of forest industries in these countries.
例15和16中,“and”和“or”屬于簡單增補,表示并列的涵義,例15中“and”前后的“endowment”和“economic activity”共同作為從句的主語,進而共同影響從句的賓語;例16中“or”前后的“positive”和“negative”是選擇關(guān)系,充當“returns”的定語,從而使得研究結(jié)果在語言表述方面更加完整。例17屬于強調(diào)的復(fù)合體,“in addition”(此外)強調(diào)它后面的句子為作者所表述的另外一個分論點,與前面所提到的分論點形成一種平行關(guān)系,從而使語篇結(jié)構(gòu)更加清晰、明了。例18屬于同位語(關(guān)系),“for instance”為舉例說明,是對前面句子的解釋說明,從而將前后語句連接在一起。例19屬于對比,“on the other hand”(另一方面)的預(yù)設(shè)為“on one hand”(一方面),即作者所表述的某一觀點有兩個分論點,在行文中,也許作者并沒有用顯性的連接“on one hand”(一方面)來表述以第一個分論點,但當出現(xiàn)“on the other hand”(另一方面),即第二個分論點時,就已經(jīng)預(yù)設(shè)了第一個分論點的存在,從而將兩個分論點有機的連接在一起,進而共同支撐作者所表述的觀點。
2.轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系。轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系分為四種類型:“正”轉(zhuǎn)折、對比、修正和刪除。例如:
(20)Results suggest that as the meat packing industry’s share of a county’s total employment and wage bill rises,total employment growth increases.However,employment growth in other sectors slows,as does local wage growth.Industry growth has little impact on local crime rates or on growth of government spending on education,health,or police protection.
(21)Much agricultural economics research has been dedicated to determining the best time for producers to sell their commodities.Unlike this past research,we look at how producers actually sell commodities.
(22)Our results imply that a single market does not exist across the entire U.S.South.Instead,these regions may form a few contiguous market segments.
例20屬于“正”轉(zhuǎn)折,“however”強調(diào)第一句話和第二句話中的“employment growth”在不同條件下表現(xiàn)出相反的特點。例21屬于對比,“actually”與句首的“unlike this past research”相互呼應(yīng),對比前一句的表述和過去“producers”的狀態(tài)。例22屬于修正,“instead”的前一句是對當前一種狀態(tài)的否認,“instead”則是對當前這種狀態(tài)的修正。無論“正”轉(zhuǎn)折、對比、修正還是刪除,都是通過否定、比較等連接詞將語篇中的句子有機的聯(lián)系在一起。
3.因果關(guān)系。因果關(guān)系分為四種類型:概括因果關(guān)系、具體因果關(guān)系、概括倒置因果關(guān)系和方面關(guān)系。例如:
(23)Although intensive managed plantations clearly increase the growth and yield of forests several papers refer to declining forest productivity.Therefore in this paper we study the impact of declining forest productivity on the land expectation value and the optimal rotation length.
(24)We show that market power may reduce or eliminate entirely the net welfare benefits from removing two traditional support mechanisms,price floors and deficiency payments,and may increase considerably the government’s cost of implementing either of them.Accordingly,optimally designed price support measures may improve welfare in the presence of downstream oligopoly and/or oligopoly power.
例23屬于概括因果關(guān)系,“therefore”為正式用語,多用于筆語中,表示對第一句話所表述內(nèi)容的邏輯結(jié)果,兩個句子通過“therefore”彼此相連,形成完整的語篇。例24中的“accordingly”亦為正式用語,多用筆語,是對已經(jīng)表述的觀點提出新的方式或見解。
4.時間關(guān)系。時間關(guān)系分為四種類型:簡單時間關(guān)系、復(fù)合時間關(guān)系、內(nèi)部時間關(guān)系和“當時當?shù)亍标P(guān)系。例如:
(25)Finally,the focus turns to a microeconomic perspective on agricultural household decision making and the problems of imperfect and missing markets,asymmetric information,and transactions costs that lead to widespread apparent inefficiency and disequilibrium.
(26)The results show that current consumption first decreases and then increases when moving from younger to older individuals regardless of whether nontimber assets are more or less heavily taxed through bequests than consumption.
(27)Impacts of exchange rates on international forest products trade are widely debated,but the empirical evidence regarding this issue is still incon-clusive.Here,we report findings of the impacts of the exchange rates on the main forest product imports and exports of the US,from January 1989 to November 2004.
例25屬于簡單時間關(guān)系,通過上半部分介紹科技論文中的一些情況,“最終”使用“finally”表述論文的重點及目的。例26屬于內(nèi)部時間關(guān)系,上半句話表述了當前的狀態(tài),“then”則用來表述對上半句話的延續(xù)。例17屬于“當時當?shù)亍标P(guān)系,表明作者當前論文的主要研究對象、研究目的及研究成果。
詞匯銜接是指在語篇中通過選擇詞匯建立一個可以貫穿語篇的鏈條,從而使語篇連貫。
(28)This paper analyzes the effects of resin benefit on the optimal rotation age of Simao pine plantation.Timber growth and resin yield functions were first derived,and then an integrated formulation for Hartman rotation was solved by taking both timber and resin benefits into consideration through numerical optimization.Empirical results indicate that:(1)the inclusion of resin benefit results in lengthening optimal rotation age;(2)resin benefit has a greater effect on rotation age when discount rate is lower than when it is high,ceteris paribus;(3)with an improvement of site productivity,resin benefit has a decreasing effect on rotation age,other factors being constant.These effects are also true with respect to benefit gains in present value.
例28 中,“effect”“resin benefit”“rotation age”在整個語篇中反復(fù)出現(xiàn),充當整個科技論文英文摘要的關(guān)鍵詞,強調(diào)了作者意欲表達的主題,從而起到銜接作用;“optimal”和“optimization”雖然形式不同,但意思相同,將上下文有機連接;“Simao pine”和“timber”形成上下義關(guān)系,“timber”是“Simao pine”的上義詞,分別出現(xiàn)在第一句話和第二句話中,從而將兩個句子連接在一起;“l(fā)ower”和“high”形成反義關(guān)系、“l(fā)engthening”和“greater”雖然詞性、拼寫不同,但意思上相近,從而形成近義關(guān)系,同時與“decreasing”形成反義關(guān)系,作者通過同義關(guān)系和反義關(guān)系將實驗的三個結(jié)果有機串聯(lián),銜接統(tǒng)一;“other factors”和上半句的“with an improvement of site productivity”形成互補同現(xiàn),不但充實了研究發(fā)現(xiàn),而且將兩個分句緊密銜接,語言闡述更加完整。
語篇銜接手段的應(yīng)用可以使國際期刊的英文摘要更加簡潔,邏輯性更強。本研究通過建立國際期刊學(xué)術(shù)論文英文摘要語料庫,從指稱、替代、省略、連接和詞匯銜接角度分析與歸納國際期刊英文摘要語篇銜接手段的特點,有利于國內(nèi)學(xué)者提高撰寫學(xué)術(shù)論文英文摘要的寫作能力。
本研究僅選取了100篇學(xué)術(shù)論文的英文摘要,共計18978詞,今后的研究應(yīng)該擴大語料選取,增強研究結(jié)果的適用性。其次,本研究僅選取了幾本影響因子較高的國際期刊,今后的語料選取應(yīng)該擴大國際期刊的類別,從而提高研究結(jié)果的可靠性。
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東北農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)學(xué)報(社會科學(xué)版)2013年5期