陳陽(yáng)
運(yùn)河從來不是哪個(gè)帝王一時(shí)心血來潮下江南的產(chǎn)物,它是王朝統(tǒng)治的經(jīng)濟(jì)命脈,國(guó)家財(cái)政運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)賴以為系的動(dòng)脈,也是國(guó)家財(cái)政支出的對(duì)象,是古代中國(guó)財(cái)政運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)最具體的媒介之一。
半個(gè)中國(guó)之財(cái)賦悉由此路而進(jìn)
中國(guó)地勢(shì)西高東低,大型的天然河流(例如海河、黃河、淮河、長(zhǎng)江、錢塘江等)一路向東,流入大海。為了解決南北之間的交通運(yùn)輸問題,古代中國(guó)人只能通過開鑿南北走向的人工水系來連通天然的大江大河,因而成就了中國(guó)貢獻(xiàn)給世界的歷史遺產(chǎn)、南北走向的大型人工水系——京杭大運(yùn)河。
京杭大運(yùn)河開鑿于春秋,擴(kuò)修于隋,繁榮于唐宋,取直于元,疏通于明清,是中華文明的重要標(biāo)識(shí)。大運(yùn)河早期多因戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)需要而開鑿,隋唐以后直至明清的主要功用是漕運(yùn),是持續(xù)至今仍在使用的活態(tài)文化遺產(chǎn)。
京杭大運(yùn)河流經(jīng)北京、天津、河北、山東、河南、安徽、江蘇、浙江六省二市,其演變與發(fā)展涉及制度、經(jīng)濟(jì)、社會(huì)、文化等諸多方面。作為由國(guó)家開鑿、政府管理的巨大水利工程體系,大運(yùn)河承載了以農(nóng)立國(guó)的古代中國(guó)特有的漕運(yùn)文化傳統(tǒng)。
浙江境內(nèi)的古運(yùn)道
京杭大運(yùn)河浙江段作為中國(guó)大運(yùn)河的南端,包括形成時(shí)間較早、連續(xù)運(yùn)用時(shí)間最長(zhǎng)、自然條件最好的河段——江南運(yùn)河和大運(yùn)河內(nèi)河航運(yùn)通道與外海連接的紐帶——浙東運(yùn)河兩段河道,至今仍發(fā)揮著航運(yùn)、水利、行洪等功能。它們的歷史,是一部越地從區(qū)域性政權(quán)融入統(tǒng)一帝國(guó)、越地文化和中原文化交流融合的歷史,也是一部國(guó)家為了汲取稅賦推動(dòng)運(yùn)河貫通、帶動(dòng)城市發(fā)展的歷史。
我國(guó)河流多為東西走向,戰(zhàn)國(guó)以前,水路運(yùn)輸仍限于自然河道范圍內(nèi),南北交通極為不便。春秋末年,各國(guó)開始興建運(yùn)河工程溝通天然水道,但這些工程普遍規(guī)模較小。南方吳、越兩國(guó)分別崛起后,隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)、軍事的發(fā)展開始向外擴(kuò)張,原來的天然河流已經(jīng)不能滿足航運(yùn)需求,由此,兩國(guó)先后利用東南地區(qū)水網(wǎng)發(fā)達(dá)的優(yōu)勢(shì),開始改造、建設(shè)一些運(yùn)河,用于航運(yùn)、灌溉之用。
吳國(guó)開鑿了一條連通吳地到長(zhǎng)江的南北向運(yùn)河,與江北的邗溝串聯(lián),形成吳地向北的運(yùn)河水系;向南修建百尺瀆,連通吳越兩地,從由拳(嘉興)出發(fā),經(jīng)過鹽官到達(dá)錢塘江,渡江以后進(jìn)入越地,最終連通越國(guó)都城會(huì)稽。這是文獻(xiàn)記載可見的太湖流域與浙江(錢塘江)最早的聯(lián)系通道。這條水運(yùn)通道存在數(shù)百年,是吳越兩地主要的聯(lián)系渠道,一直到秦始皇征服楚國(guó)后,在長(zhǎng)江南翼開辟陵水道,渡江不再經(jīng)由鹽官,而是多經(jīng)由更加安全的錢塘縣(杭州)。陵水道逐漸取代百尺瀆,成為溝通太湖流域與浙江(錢塘江)的主要聯(lián)系通道。這條渠道的開筑,使偏遠(yuǎn)的越國(guó)地區(qū)、會(huì)稽郡范圍的地域有效地進(jìn)入了中央政府控制的范圍內(nèi),也形成了今日所說江南運(yùn)河浙江段的早期形態(tài)。
越王勾踐時(shí)期貫通的山陰故水道,西起紹興城東郭門,東至今上虞縣東關(guān)鎮(zhèn)練塘村,全長(zhǎng)約20.7公里,與《越絕書》的記載大致符合。東晉時(shí)會(huì)稽內(nèi)史賀循連接、疏浚了山陰故水道和其他舊有河道的一部分,形成西陵運(yùn)河。后又不斷改造,這條由錢塘江而達(dá)會(huì)稽的運(yùn)河,與上虞以東運(yùn)河以及姚江、甬江的自然水道一起最后匯入東海,形成了通江達(dá)海的浙東運(yùn)河。
這些人工開鑿的運(yùn)河,在不同地域的具體河段可能有特定的名字,不同時(shí)期的拓展延伸或改建又會(huì)形成新的名字,今天的人需要一些時(shí)間才能理清它們的關(guān)系。
錢塘江兩岸的運(yùn)河,和其他區(qū)域的人工運(yùn)河一起,到戰(zhàn)國(guó)末期已經(jīng)形成了一張四通八達(dá)的水路交通網(wǎng),也拉開先秦各國(guó)水利建設(shè)的序幕,不僅溝通幾大水系,暢通了區(qū)域交通網(wǎng)絡(luò),改善了沿岸農(nóng)業(yè)條件,促進(jìn)了工商業(yè)的興盛,加強(qiáng)了各地區(qū)思想文化的交流,也加速了各民族間的溝通、交往與融合,為進(jìn)入統(tǒng)一大帝國(guó)的時(shí)代奠定了物質(zhì)基礎(chǔ)。
一條關(guān)系國(guó)家安定的通道
隨著秦漢帝國(guó)的建立,人工運(yùn)河的主要功能從軍事、政治轉(zhuǎn)向漕運(yùn)。
漕運(yùn)是封建王朝通過水路(或附以陸路)向都城或其他指定地點(diǎn)大規(guī)模輸送糧草的一種經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)。這種國(guó)家財(cái)政物資的撥付轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn),一般有三大類別:供都城消費(fèi)的“京師之運(yùn)”,供軍隊(duì)之需的“兵營(yíng)之運(yùn)”,供賑災(zāi)濟(jì)荒的“賑濟(jì)之運(yùn)”。其中以保證皇室、百官及中央行政運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)所需的“京師之運(yùn)”最為根本。因漕運(yùn)而生的一整套制度、設(shè)施以及活動(dòng)于其間的人,隨著漕糧主要產(chǎn)地的轉(zhuǎn)移和經(jīng)濟(jì)重心區(qū)的變化,共同構(gòu)成古代封建王朝的動(dòng)力供應(yīng)系統(tǒng)。
漕糧從哪里來,決定了漕運(yùn)網(wǎng)絡(luò)的形狀和布局。中國(guó)古代漕糧來源地的變化,使漕運(yùn)體系的發(fā)展呈現(xiàn)出明顯的階段性特點(diǎn)。
秦漢時(shí)期,漕糧供應(yīng)地主要是黃河中下游地區(qū),關(guān)東、山東粟運(yùn)往關(guān)中政治中心所在,這個(gè)階段漕運(yùn)以長(zhǎng)安為中心,稱為“關(guān)東之漕”。東漢至隋唐,隨著江南的開發(fā),東南地區(qū)日漸成為朝廷的主要賦稅來源,漕糧供應(yīng)地由關(guān)東逐漸轉(zhuǎn)向江淮,“關(guān)東之漕”轉(zhuǎn)為“江淮之漕”。
把漕糧供應(yīng)地更緊密地聯(lián)系起來,是隋朝建國(guó)以后修建貫通南北的大運(yùn)河的巨大推動(dòng)力。隨著大運(yùn)河北通涿郡,南達(dá)錢塘江,它終于可以被稱為京杭大運(yùn)河了,其中,長(zhǎng)江以南的這一段,北起鎮(zhèn)江,南至杭州,又稱江南運(yùn)河,河面開闊,舟楫往來最為便利,成為中原地區(qū)通往江南的主要運(yùn)輸通道。
唐代安史之亂以后,東南地區(qū)較少經(jīng)受戰(zhàn)亂破壞,長(zhǎng)江下游經(jīng)濟(jì)得到迅速發(fā)展,全國(guó)的經(jīng)濟(jì)中心逐步從黃河流域轉(zhuǎn)向長(zhǎng)江流域,朝廷用度隨之開始仰仗?hào)|南一帶。史書上說,“賦出于天下,江南居十九”,“天下大計(jì),仰于東南”,中央政府的糧食和衣料主要依賴東南漕運(yùn)。兩浙的漕糧由運(yùn)河轉(zhuǎn)輸,漕運(yùn)阻滯時(shí),唐政府的官員和軍隊(duì)的衣食都成問題。
北宋以后,經(jīng)濟(jì)重心完全南移,江南地區(qū)成為經(jīng)濟(jì)與賦稅重心。貫穿南北的京杭大運(yùn)河,把江南經(jīng)濟(jì)重心與北方政治中心聯(lián)接在一起,改變了延續(xù)千年之久的以中原地區(qū)為中心的漕運(yùn)體系,原來的“江淮之漕”轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)椤敖现睢薄?/p>
北宋都城汴京(又稱大梁、今開封),南宋都城臨安(今杭州),分處運(yùn)河南北的水陸交通中心和漕運(yùn)樞紐位置,以汴京或臨安為中心建立起來的漕運(yùn)體系,形成一個(gè)嚴(yán)密而有效的供給系統(tǒng),源源不斷地將各地糧食物資輸送到都城所在地,也將中國(guó)古代漕運(yùn)發(fā)展推向巔峰時(shí)期。
運(yùn)河南端的杭州城
從東西向的“關(guān)東之漕”到南北向的“江南之漕”,財(cái)政經(jīng)濟(jì)大動(dòng)脈的根本轉(zhuǎn)向就發(fā)生在兩宋。這種轉(zhuǎn)向甚至帶動(dòng)了政治軸心的改變,我們對(duì)首都的稱呼,從東都、西都變成了南京、北京。
位于京杭大運(yùn)河最南端的杭州,也在這個(gè)過程中改變了命運(yùn)。春秋至隋以前的兩浙一帶,錢塘江以北(即浙西)以吳郡(即蘇州)為重鎮(zhèn),錢塘江以南(即浙東)以會(huì)稽為中心。杭州所在的錢唐,不過區(qū)區(qū)一縣,地位大不如吳郡、會(huì)稽。
隋文帝時(shí)期楊素主持營(yíng)建杭州城,是杭州歷史上第一次建造州城。緊接著江南運(yùn)河疏浚貫通,杭州成為貫穿中國(guó)南北大運(yùn)河的南端終點(diǎn),由此開始了從原來的山中小縣,逐步成為水居江河之會(huì)、陸介兩浙之間的要地,走向了大都市的發(fā)展歷程。
南宋建都臨安(即杭州),運(yùn)河是溝通中原的主要渠道,從鎮(zhèn)江至杭州這一段的運(yùn)河有專門名字——浙西運(yùn)河。
到了元朝,大運(yùn)河疏浚取直,不再繞道洛陽(yáng),以最短的距離,縱貫當(dāng)時(shí)最富庶的東部沿海區(qū)域,實(shí)現(xiàn)了國(guó)家政治中心和經(jīng)濟(jì)中心的大融合。
南宋以后,杭州雖然喪失了政治中心的優(yōu)勢(shì),但唐宋以來的發(fā)展打下了良好的基礎(chǔ)。到了明朝,杭州商業(yè)繁榮,街道上商店林立,貨物充盈,一派繁榮景象。
從宋代到明清,由杭州府之武林驛,向北經(jīng)過湖州府德清縣,嘉興府崇德縣、桐鄉(xiāng)縣,最后到達(dá)蘇州府吳江縣,始終是經(jīng)由杭州城北上的主要通道。
北宋熙寧年間日本僧人成尋,坐船從杭州出發(fā)北上汴梁,其《參天臺(tái)五臺(tái)山記》記錄了行船路線及所用時(shí)日,走的就是這條線路。
南宋時(shí)陸游《入蜀記》記錄了他從紹興出發(fā)到蜀地的經(jīng)由線路,在錢塘江以南,經(jīng)過柯橋、錢清、蕭山、西興,走的正是浙東運(yùn)河。渡江以后,走浙西運(yùn)河,線路與成尋所記載的相同。
明代弘治年間,朝鮮文臣崔溥從濟(jì)州出發(fā)前往羅州,途中不幸遭遇海難,在海上漂流13天后,意外地漂到了中國(guó)。在浙江臺(tái)州府臨海牛頭外洋(今屬浙江三門縣)登陸后,經(jīng)寧波、紹興至杭州,繼而沿運(yùn)河路北上,抵達(dá)北京,再經(jīng)陸路返回朝鮮,歷時(shí)135天,成為明代第一個(gè)行經(jīng)運(yùn)河全程的朝鮮人。崔溥回國(guó)后,將這段神奇的經(jīng)歷撰寫成書,名為《漂海錄》。
到了清代,對(duì)這條線路的記錄更是比比皆是。
杭州城北的大關(guān)和運(yùn)河稅收
歷代商民的經(jīng)濟(jì)交往、文化交流沿著大運(yùn)河展開,但它首先是一條輸送國(guó)家財(cái)政稅收物資的“高速路”,上面航行的最重要的是漕船。裝載著稅收征繳的白銀、銅錢、糧食作物和紡織品,源源不斷地通過運(yùn)河進(jìn)入國(guó)家倉(cāng)庫(kù)。
我們通常把北宋傳世名畫《清明上河圖》作為風(fēng)俗畫解讀,其實(shí)畫家還著重描繪了漕運(yùn)綱船,選取的題材和內(nèi)容都是頗有深意的。
《清明上河圖》留下了宋代漕船的清晰形象,畫中畫了大大小小共29只船,分為漕船、客船和游船三類,畫中圓短體闊的平底船,吃水淺,窗戶少,載重量大,由官營(yíng)作坊制造,在汴河上主要擔(dān)負(fù)運(yùn)輸任務(wù)。透過畫面,畫家想告訴觀畫人,漕運(yùn)是一件關(guān)乎京師供給的國(guó)之大事。
運(yùn)河沿岸還有用于中轉(zhuǎn)的糧倉(cāng)。今天這些糧倉(cāng)的遺址也成為運(yùn)河文化遺產(chǎn)的重要組成部分。興建于清代光緒年間的富義倉(cāng),建成后一直是杭州百姓最主要的糧食供應(yīng)地,江南谷米的集散地,上繳朝廷的稅糧也從這里啟程北運(yùn)。
國(guó)家也在大運(yùn)河上面設(shè)置常關(guān),征收國(guó)內(nèi)關(guān)稅。明清時(shí)期杭州城北所設(shè)北新關(guān)就是運(yùn)河上重要的稅關(guān)。
北新關(guān)在明代一直由南京戶部差官管理。清初,由戶部差官管理。康煕五十五年,停差戶部官,由巡撫監(jiān)收。雍正七年,稅務(wù)交由織造府管理。清代的北新關(guān)在實(shí)際的管理運(yùn)作中,由大關(guān)及其七務(wù)、六關(guān)、十門、八口址總共三十二所組成,由大關(guān)統(tǒng)率,各司其職,形成嚴(yán)密的商稅控制網(wǎng)絡(luò)。如果按照乾隆十八年的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù),北新關(guān)的稅收收入近22萬兩,占清代在大運(yùn)河、長(zhǎng)江、淮河等重要水域交通要道所設(shè)稅關(guān)總收入的百分之五強(qiáng)。
北新關(guān)是明清時(shí)代杭州的標(biāo)志性景觀,它在杭州城北前后存在400多年時(shí)間,至今在杭州人的觀念和語言習(xí)慣中,仍保留著“大關(guān)”這一詞匯。
大運(yùn)河開鑿貫通后在漕糧輸運(yùn)中發(fā)揮著重要作用,是國(guó)家財(cái)政運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)賴以存在的重要基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施,但是它的疏浚和維護(hù)也需要大量的財(cái)政支出。大運(yùn)河支流繁多,與黃河、淮河、長(zhǎng)江之間水道交匯錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜,這些水系的自然變遷都可能對(duì)大運(yùn)河造成巨大影響,因此,對(duì)大運(yùn)河的疏浚治理是歷代政府的常態(tài)之舉。例如,防止黃河泥沙流入運(yùn)河,就一直是保證運(yùn)河通航必須解決的老大難問題,為此修建了一系列的堤、壩、閘、墩、引河、河口等復(fù)雜的水工系統(tǒng)。在浙江境內(nèi),運(yùn)河過錢塘江時(shí)也留下了若干重要的水利工程設(shè)施。浙東運(yùn)河穿過多條自然河流,為維持水位的穩(wěn)定并灌溉兩岸農(nóng)田,沿線設(shè)置了大量由堰壩和閘門組成的水利設(shè)施。
唐宋以來,上萬只漕船,在不同季節(jié)時(shí)令運(yùn)載著數(shù)百萬石漕糧,在喧囂靜謐交替中往返于產(chǎn)糧區(qū)與京師之間。商品與貿(mào)易,方言與文化,信仰和文學(xué),摻雜著社會(huì)風(fēng)俗,與往來的漕船一起,隨著運(yùn)河水的流動(dòng),直到今天,依然在我們的生活里泛起點(diǎn)點(diǎn)漣漪。
Grand Canal: Imperial Lifeline
By Chen Yang
The Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal dates back to the Spring & Autumn period. It extended and expanded in the Sui Dynasty (581-618) and became full-flung in the centuries of the Tang (618-907) and the Song (960-1279). In the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), the major watercourse was straightened. In the Ming (1368-1644) and the Qing (1644-1911), it was dredged. It is a landmark canal of Chinese civilization.
The Grand Canal was first dug for war purposes. From the Sui Dynasty on, it functioned as the major route for cereals shipping from production regions in the south to the north and central China. Today, the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal traverses Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Anhui, Jiangsu and Zhejiang. The canal has evolved and developed, shaping aspects of Chinas governance, economy, society and culture. As a giant water-control engineering system constructed and operated by the central government, the Grand Canal used to feature the shipping tradition of an agricultural nation.
Ancient canals in Zhejiang
Hangzhou in Zhejiang was at the southernmost tip of the Grand Canal before the system crossed the Qiantang River and extended eastward to Shaoxing and Ningbo. The Jiangnan section of the Grand Canal and the Eastern Zhejiang Canal are very much alive today. They play a key role in cargo shipping, water control and flood discharging. The history of these two canals tells stories concerning how a regional power merged into the empire and how the Yue culture united with the culture of the central kingdom. The history of the two canals also tells how, in order to levy taxes effectively and sustain national revenue, a nation maintained the operation of the canal and boosted the growth and prosperity of canal cities and towns.
River transport in ancient China went from east to west and vice versa largely because rivers in China mainly go from west to east due to the geographic features. It was much difficult to ship cargo through rivers from north to south and vice versa. In Jiangnan or the region in the south of the Yangtze River Delta, there was a dense network of rivers. Boats and ships were the major way to travel around and move things around. In Spring & Autumn centuries, the Wu and the Yue states rose in the region. Canals were constructed for economic and agricultural purposes. The Wu state in the north of Jiangnan built a canal to connect with the Yangtze River. It then built a canal to connect with the Yue state to the south. According to history, the canals and rivers linked the Wu and the Yue, with Taihu Lake at the northern tip of the canal system and Kuaiji, the capital of the Yue, at the southern end of the regional canal system. The canal system shared by the two states prospered for hundreds of years. After the First Emperor of the Qin (221-207BC)unified the whole nation, he had another canal built to make the existing canal system more effective. This correction of the system brought the remote Yue in the south of the Qiantang River under the effective control of the empire.
The canal system to the south of the Qiantang River connects with a number of regional rivers and reaches East China Sea. With the canals and rivers to the north of the Qiantang River, they formed a system. The system boosted social and economic growth of the region and gave support to the empire.
After the Qin Dynasty, the function of the canals shifted from military to cereal transport from the south to the north. In the past, the canal system in China shipped food northward for three important functions: the canal system maintained the food supply and daily consumption of the capital city, shipped food supplies to military, and transported food to regions in emergencies such as natural disasters. The most important task the canal system did was to serve as a lifeline, specifically, for the imperial house, all the officials, and the central government situated in the capital city. To satisfy this requirement, the central government designed and put into place a whole system of administration, policies and rules for the operation of the Grand Canal.
During the Qin and the Western Han (206BC-25AD), the cereal supply came largely from the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. During these centuries, Changan in present-day Shaanxi Province in northwestern China was the center and destination of the shipping system and food moved from west to east in the northern part of the country. From the Eastern Han (25-220) down to the Sui and the Tang dynasties, the Southeast China became a major food supplier. The Sui Dynasty extended the canal all the way to the Qiantang River. The canal from south to north of this period can be correctly called the Capital-Hangzhou Canal.
After the An Lushan-Shi Siming Rebellion (755-763) of the Tang Dynasty, the economic center further shifted to the southeast, namely, the region of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River Delta. The tax revenue from the region accounted for the 90% of the national total. The food and fabric supplies from this region kept the central government in operation. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the political center in the north and the economic center in the south were connected and sustained by the canal system.
Hangzhou at the Southern End of the Grand Canal
Hangzhou evolved slowly at the southern end of the Grand Canal. In the Sui Dynasty, the city of Hangzhou was built to guard the southern end of the Grand Canal. The small county nestled at the foot of mountains west of the West Lake moved its capital to the present-day Hangzhou. The new county capital was on the right track onto becoming a metropolis.
The turning point in the history of Hangzhou occurred in the Northern Song and the Southern Song. Hangzhou was the central city of the supply side on the south connecting with the political center in the north during the Northern Song. During the Southern Song, the capital city was the political, cultural and economic center of the dynasty.
In the Yuan Dynasty, the canal didnt go to Luoyang any more. It went straightforward northward to the capital of Yuan Dynasty in the north. The capital was the predecessor of present-day Beijing. The canal became the shortest route that went through the richest regions of the country, fusing the political and economic centers. After the Southern Song Dynasty fell apart, Hangzhou ceased to be the political center of the nation, but it continued to prosper. It prospered more in the Ming and the Qing economically and culturally, as testified by a large amount of travel literature on boat trips from Hangzhou to the north including some well-known accounts by Japanese monks, poets and a Korean government official.