齊亞南 郭大志 潘樹義
[摘要] 神經(jīng)炎性反應(yīng)在腦缺血再灌注損傷的病理生理過程中發(fā)揮重要的作用。小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞作為中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)(CNS)重要的免疫效應(yīng)細(xì)胞,是CNS的第一道防線,它可釋放多種炎癥因子及多種生長因子,增加多種促炎酶類的表達(dá),在神經(jīng)炎性反應(yīng)過程中的作用舉足輕重。腦缺血再灌注損傷時(shí),“靜息態(tài)”小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞受多種細(xì)胞因子激活,如γ干擾素、腫瘤壞死因子-α、集落刺激因子、轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子等,轉(zhuǎn)變成不同表型的“活化態(tài)”小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞,即M1型和M2型,發(fā)揮抗炎和促炎雙重作用,影響腦缺血再灌注損傷的發(fā)生和發(fā)展。本文擬從小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的生理特征、小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞活化的影響因素、小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞表型轉(zhuǎn)變特點(diǎn)和調(diào)控表型變化因子等方面進(jìn)行敘述,以深入了解小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在腦缺血再灌注損傷中的作用及活化與表型轉(zhuǎn)變的影響因素和特點(diǎn),為腦缺血再灌注損傷的預(yù)防、治療及預(yù)后提供依據(jù)。
[關(guān)鍵詞] 小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞;活化;神經(jīng)炎癥;缺血再灌注
[中圖分類號] R743.31? ? ? ? ? [文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼] A? ? ? ? ? [文章編號] 1673-7210(2019)09(b)-0026-04
The role of microglia cells in cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury
QI Ya′nan1,2? ?GUO Dazhi2? ?PAN Shuyi1,2
1.Gracluate School, Chengde Medical College, Hebei Province, Chengde? ?067000, China; 2.Department of Hyperbaric, the Sixth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing? ?100089, China
[Abstract] Neuroinflammatory reaction plays an important role in the pathophysiology of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Microglia is an important immune effector cell in the central nervous system (CNS), and it is the first defensive line for CNS. Microglia can release a variety of inflammatory factors and a variety of growth factors and increase the expression of various proinflammatory enzymes. It plays a key role in the neuroinflammatory reactions. During cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury occurs, microglia cells are activated by a variety of cytokines at“rest”, such as γ-interferon, tumor cytokine-α, colony stimulating factor, transforming growth factor, etc. Then it transforms into different phenotypes of “activated” microglia, namely M1 and M2 type. They play a dual effect of anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory, and affect the occurrence and development of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. This review describes the physiological characteristics of microglia, factors affecting microglia activation, phenotypic transformation characteristics of microglia and factors regulating phenotypic changes, in order to understand the role of microglia in cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury, and characteristics of activation and phenotypic transformation. It provides the basis for the prevention, treatment and prognosis of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury.
[Key words] Microglia; Activation; Neuro-inflammation; Ischemia reperfusion
缺血-再灌注損傷是指血液灌注恢復(fù)后,缺血所致的組織器官損傷進(jìn)一步加重,甚至出現(xiàn)不可逆現(xiàn)象,常見于缺血缺氧性腦病、缺血性腦卒中等疾病。腦缺血再灌注損傷的病理生理學(xué)過程涉及自由基損傷、細(xì)胞內(nèi)鈣超載、白細(xì)胞損傷、微循環(huán)障礙、神經(jīng)炎性反應(yīng)等多個環(huán)節(jié),其中神經(jīng)炎性反應(yīng)占據(jù)重要的地位。
腦內(nèi)神經(jīng)炎性反應(yīng)是由小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞、星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞及巨噬細(xì)胞的激活驅(qū)動。腦損傷后,受損或死亡細(xì)胞釋放損傷相關(guān)因子,刺激小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和星型膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞釋放細(xì)胞因子和趨化因子,介導(dǎo)外周炎癥細(xì)胞的浸潤,形成炎癥微環(huán)境[1]。腦損傷后,小細(xì)胞膠質(zhì)最早做出應(yīng)答,這種應(yīng)答在臨床治療中是把“雙刃劍”。
1 小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的生理特性
小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞是中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中最小的一種膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞,形態(tài)不規(guī)則,可呈腎形、橢圓形或三角形,核染色質(zhì)多,約占中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的20%,在腦內(nèi)分布廣泛。小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞是中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的固有免疫細(xì)胞和第一道防線[2],可釋放多種炎癥因子及生長因子,增加多種促炎酶類的表達(dá),在神經(jīng)炎性反應(yīng)過程中舉足輕重。小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的起源尚有爭論,大多數(shù)學(xué)者認(rèn)為其起源于中胚層,但部分研究認(rèn)為來源于骨髓的單核巨噬細(xì)胞[3]。
生理?xiàng)l件下,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞處于靜息狀態(tài),呈分支狀,胞體小,突起長。然而靜息狀態(tài)并不是完全不動,而是通過細(xì)胞突起的伸縮監(jiān)測中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的內(nèi)環(huán)境變化,及時(shí)清除健康成人大腦中凋亡的神經(jīng)元[4]。此時(shí),小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞不具有吞噬功能,但具有遷移和吞飲功能[5],還可分泌一些生長因子,營養(yǎng)、支持、保護(hù)和修復(fù)神經(jīng)元的電生理活動,以維持中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的動態(tài)平衡[6]。大腦短暫缺血時(shí),靜息狀態(tài)下的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞會與突觸發(fā)生緊密接觸,清除缺血壞死病灶,這種結(jié)合會持續(xù)大約1 h[7]。靜息狀態(tài)下的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞具有監(jiān)管神經(jīng)突觸的功能,在由局部缺血導(dǎo)致的神經(jīng)通路紊亂中起關(guān)鍵作用。Parkhurst等[8]發(fā)現(xiàn),小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞也可通過分泌神經(jīng)營養(yǎng)因子來影響突觸的可塑性,進(jìn)而影響學(xué)習(xí)與記憶。
當(dāng)發(fā)生腦損傷時(shí),小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的胞體會變大,突起及分支增多,立即被激活成“阿米巴樣”[9],激活后的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞具有一定的吞噬功能,可消化并降解因缺血損傷造成的壞死細(xì)胞。
2 小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞激活的影響因素
近年來研究發(fā)現(xiàn),小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的激活受多種細(xì)胞因子的影響,①γ干擾素(IFN-γ):IFN-γ主要由淋巴細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生,是較強(qiáng)的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞激動劑,可促進(jìn)補(bǔ)體C3和C4的產(chǎn)生,增加腫瘤壞死因子-α(TNF-α)的釋放,促進(jìn)活性氧和一氧化氮(NO)的產(chǎn)生,誘導(dǎo)神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞增生[10]。②TNF-α:TNF-α是巨噬細(xì)胞分泌的一種小分子蛋白,具有強(qiáng)大的抗炎作用,可通過刺激腦血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞表達(dá)黏附因子,激活膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的增殖與分化[11]。③集落刺激因子:集落刺激因子是小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的有絲分裂原,巨噬細(xì)胞集落刺激因子可增加小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞白細(xì)胞介素-1(IL-1)、IL-6和NO的分泌,進(jìn)而增加小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的毒性作用,進(jìn)一步活化星型膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞[12]。④轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子:轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子是由血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞、單核巨噬細(xì)胞以及淋巴細(xì)胞等產(chǎn)生的具有多重免疫效應(yīng)的活性分子[13],對細(xì)胞增殖、分化、凋亡及免疫功能具有重要的調(diào)節(jié)作用。Miron等[14]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子-β的超家族成員激活素A介導(dǎo)下,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞驅(qū)使少突膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞分化為中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)再生髓鞘,促進(jìn)中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的損傷恢復(fù)。⑤細(xì)胞外鉀離子:小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞是中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中唯一對鉀離子的濃度變化敏感且具有鉀離子通道的神經(jīng)細(xì)胞[15],同時(shí)細(xì)胞外鉀離子濃度增高可激活小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞[16]。
3 小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的表型變化
腦缺血再灌注損傷時(shí),多種促炎分子如TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6和IFN-γ、趨化因子、NO、活性氧(ROS)、基質(zhì)金屬蛋白酶-9(matrix metallopeptidase-9,MMP-9)、谷氨酸和ATP釋放[17-18],激活小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞活性,參與“神經(jīng)變性-氧化應(yīng)激”的過程,進(jìn)一步加重腦炎性反應(yīng),加重腦損傷[19]。腦缺血再灌注損傷后,活化的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞根據(jù)損傷腦區(qū)域、受損部位和損傷嚴(yán)重程度,產(chǎn)生不同的表型即M1型和M2型,做出不同的反應(yīng)[20-21]。
M1型即經(jīng)典活化型,又稱促炎型,由IFN-γ、脂多糖(LPS)等誘導(dǎo)產(chǎn)生[22]。其表面標(biāo)志物包括誘導(dǎo)型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase,iNOS)、CD11b、CD16、CD32、CD86,產(chǎn)生各種促炎性反應(yīng)因子,如TNF-α、IL-1β、MMP-3等[23-24]。促炎性反應(yīng)因子與神經(jīng)細(xì)胞直接接觸,在吞噬細(xì)胞發(fā)揮毒性作用的同時(shí)也進(jìn)一步加重炎性反應(yīng),加強(qiáng)抗原呈遞能力,促進(jìn)炎癥的發(fā)生與進(jìn)展[25]。主要表現(xiàn)為:①活化小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞環(huán)氧化酶-2(cyclooxygenase-2,COX-2),COX-2催化產(chǎn)生的超氧化物酶可與NO作用形成毒性更強(qiáng)的超氧化酶,進(jìn)一步造成細(xì)胞損傷。②小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生的ROS會導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞膜脂質(zhì)過氧化、蛋白質(zhì)氧化、酶失活甚至導(dǎo)致DNA損傷,加重神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的損害[26]。
M2型即選擇活化型,又稱抗炎型,由抗炎因子IL-4和IL-13等誘導(dǎo)產(chǎn)生[22],其表面標(biāo)志物包括CD206、CCL-22,在腦缺血再灌注損傷時(shí)可產(chǎn)生抗炎因子,如IL-10和生長因子,抑制免疫炎性反應(yīng),促進(jìn)神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的再生和組織修復(fù)。M2型又包含多個亞型(M2a、M2b、M2c)[27]。
M1型小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞被認(rèn)為是標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的激活狀態(tài),且不只被激活一次。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),被激活的M1型小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞會在特定情況下再次被激活成M2型[28],M1型極化態(tài)的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在一定程度下抑制M2型極化態(tài)的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的作用。
4 小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞M1、M2表型轉(zhuǎn)變特點(diǎn)
研究發(fā)現(xiàn),小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的表型變化受缺血時(shí)間的影響。M2型小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在缺血再灌注損傷早期大量表達(dá),說明在損傷早期,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在缺血區(qū)發(fā)揮抗炎、促進(jìn)組織恢復(fù)作用[9]。在損傷后3 d開始,M1型標(biāo)志物(iNOS、CD11b、CD16、CD32、CD86)在缺血區(qū)被檢測到并逐漸增加,除CD86外,其余標(biāo)志物數(shù)量可以保持?jǐn)?shù)周甚至幾個月;而M2型標(biāo)志物(CD206、CCL-22)水平在腦損傷后1~3 d顯著增加,3~5 d達(dá)到峰值。大多數(shù)的M2型標(biāo)志物在損傷后7 d左右開始減少,14 d前后恢復(fù)到損傷前的水平[25,29]。進(jìn)一步提示,M2型的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞只有在初期發(fā)揮抗炎作用,在亞急性期小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞逐漸由M2型向M1型轉(zhuǎn)變,此時(shí)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞開始由抗炎作用向促炎性反應(yīng)的方向轉(zhuǎn)變。隨著年齡的增加,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞細(xì)胞會由M2型向M1型轉(zhuǎn)變,促進(jìn)腦部炎性反應(yīng)的發(fā)生,引起神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的損傷和病變。在腦缺血再灌注損傷的老齡小鼠中,缺血部位M2型小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的數(shù)量明顯少于年輕小鼠,這也可能是老齡小鼠腦損傷后預(yù)后不好的主要原因[24-25,30]。
5 參與小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞表型轉(zhuǎn)變調(diào)控的受體和細(xì)胞分子
5.1 單核-巨噬細(xì)胞表面的清道夫受體(scavenger ReceptorA,SR-A)
腦缺血再灌注損傷后,SR-A受體通過激活核轉(zhuǎn)錄因子-κB(nuclear transcription factor-κB,NF-κB)促進(jìn)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞向M1型極化態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)變,此時(shí)M1型小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的含量迅速增加,炎性反應(yīng)和腦損傷加重。在敲除小鼠SR-A受體基因后發(fā)現(xiàn),腦梗死面積較少,炎癥減輕,腦損傷的預(yù)后好于沒有敲除該受體的小鼠[31]。
5.2 IL-10
IL-10是一種抗炎性細(xì)胞因子,能夠抑制炎性反應(yīng)和抗原的呈遞過程。動物試驗(yàn)發(fā)現(xiàn),與正常小鼠比較,缺乏IL-10的小鼠腦損傷后病灶大、損傷重、預(yù)后不好。在缺乏IL-10的小鼠中檢測到M2型的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的標(biāo)志物水平明顯下降,說明IL-10促進(jìn)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞向M2型轉(zhuǎn)變,具有促進(jìn)神經(jīng)元細(xì)胞恢復(fù),減輕炎性反應(yīng)的作用[32]。
5.3 IL-4
IL-4也是一種抗炎型細(xì)胞因子。動物實(shí)驗(yàn)中,敲除IL-4基因后發(fā)現(xiàn),M1型小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的標(biāo)志物水平升高,M2型標(biāo)志物水平降低,說明IL-4能介導(dǎo)小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞向M2型極化態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)變,有助于改善腦損傷[33]。
6 結(jié)語
小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞在腦缺血再灌注損傷中具有兩面性。一方面,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)镸2型,發(fā)揮吞噬作用,抑制炎性反應(yīng)擴(kuò)大;另一方面,小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)镸1型,促進(jìn)炎癥發(fā)生發(fā)展。小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的活化調(diào)控是在多因素水平下進(jìn)行,這些因素相互交叉,既有正反饋又有負(fù)反饋?zhàn)饔?,且調(diào)控機(jī)制非常復(fù)雜。相信深入探討研究作用機(jī)制,進(jìn)一步了解小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞的活化與表型轉(zhuǎn)變的影響因素和發(fā)生發(fā)展特點(diǎn),對于腦缺血再灌注損傷的預(yù)防、治療及預(yù)后具有重大意義。
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(收稿日期:2019-04-03? 本文編輯:任? ?念)