程小龍,韓一平,2*
本文要點(diǎn):
本文對(duì)糖尿病及降糖藥物對(duì)肺癌的影響及其機(jī)制的研究進(jìn)展進(jìn)行了綜述,由于糖尿病或降糖藥物可能存在潛在影響,肺癌合并糖尿病患者腫瘤的治療與隨訪,以及降糖策略可能需要適當(dāng)調(diào)整。胰島素樣生長(zhǎng)因子-1(IGF-1)等旁路可能成為抗癌治療新的靶點(diǎn),需要更多的基礎(chǔ)實(shí)驗(yàn)來(lái)證明。
本文雖綜述了大量最新研究進(jìn)展,但部分文獻(xiàn)相對(duì)陳舊,且目前合并糖尿病及各類降糖藥物對(duì)肺癌發(fā)病及預(yù)后影響的研究結(jié)論尚不一致,仍需更多設(shè)計(jì)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)拇笠?guī)模前瞻性臨床對(duì)照研究來(lái)探討。
糖尿病與肺癌是世界范圍內(nèi)的多發(fā)病、常見病,嚴(yán)重威脅人類健康,隨著人口老齡化的進(jìn)程加劇,兩病共存的現(xiàn)象越來(lái)越常見。早在1932年WILSON[1]就注意到2型糖尿?。═2DM)可能會(huì)增加腫瘤的發(fā)病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。糖尿病與肺癌有許多共同的高危因素,如高齡、生活方式、飲食習(xí)慣、環(huán)境因素等。糖尿病可能通過高血糖、高胰島素及胰島素抵抗、慢性炎癥、微血管病變等機(jī)制對(duì)肺癌的發(fā)生、轉(zhuǎn)移及預(yù)后產(chǎn)生影響。不同的降血糖藥物對(duì)肺癌的影響及機(jī)制可能也各不相同。本文對(duì)糖尿病和降糖藥對(duì)肺癌的影響及其可能的機(jī)制進(jìn)行綜述。
肺癌和糖尿病均是隨年齡增長(zhǎng)而發(fā)病率增高的常見病。由于吸煙、環(huán)境污染等原因,肺癌已是世界范圍內(nèi)居發(fā)病率及病死率首位的惡性腫瘤。流行病學(xué)資料表明我國(guó)現(xiàn)階段肺癌患病率達(dá)0.6%[2]。由于早期診斷率低,預(yù)后較差,肺癌患者5年生存率不足16%[3]。因人們生活方式、飲食結(jié)構(gòu)的改變,自20世紀(jì)70年代開始,我國(guó)糖尿病患病率持續(xù)上升,2014年國(guó)際糖尿病聯(lián)合會(huì)報(bào)告指出,我國(guó)糖尿病患病率為9.3%,患病人數(shù)達(dá)9 629萬(wàn),居全球首位[4]。隨著人口老齡化進(jìn)程加劇,臨床上兩病共存的現(xiàn)象越來(lái)越常見。王愛萍等[5]研究發(fā)現(xiàn)T2DM患者惡性腫瘤發(fā)病率高達(dá)28.35%,其中消化道腫瘤、血液系統(tǒng)腫瘤、肺癌居前三位,遠(yuǎn)高于普通人群惡性腫瘤發(fā)病率。周海芝等[6]發(fā)現(xiàn),合并糖尿病的肺癌患者占肺癌患者總數(shù)的15%。
糖尿病與肺癌的高危因素有許多相似之處,也是眾多學(xué)者對(duì)二者之間的聯(lián)系如此關(guān)注的原因之一。隨著年齡的增長(zhǎng),肺癌及糖尿病的發(fā)病率均增高[7],王許等[8]研究顯示糖尿病發(fā)病年齡每增加1歲,肺癌發(fā)生率增加1.042倍。有研究表明男性糖尿病患者的肺癌發(fā)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn)較女性高[9]。吸煙和飲酒,尤其是吸煙與肺癌的發(fā)生密切相關(guān)[10],據(jù)統(tǒng)計(jì)全世界85%~90%的肺癌由吸煙所致[11-12],且二者均是糖尿病的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素[13-14]。超過80%的T2DM患者體型肥胖,而肥胖,尤其是中心性肥胖可增加腫瘤的發(fā)病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)并且是不良預(yù)后的預(yù)測(cè)指標(biāo)[15]。有研究表明飲食中增加新鮮蔬菜、水果、全谷物、膳食纖維等,能提高胰島素的敏感性,降低糖尿病發(fā)病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[16],該飲食結(jié)構(gòu)也可能通過調(diào)節(jié)體內(nèi)白介素(IL)-6的變化影響多種腫瘤形成[17]。飲食因素主要影響結(jié)直腸癌等消化道腫瘤的發(fā)病,對(duì)肺癌發(fā)生的影響需更多對(duì)照研究證實(shí)。糖尿病管理的“五駕馬車”理論中即包括適當(dāng)運(yùn)動(dòng),目前已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)運(yùn)動(dòng)可降低多種腫瘤的發(fā)病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[18]。職業(yè)或環(huán)境因素,如砷暴露等也可能是二者的共同危險(xiǎn)因素,在我國(guó)法定的8種職業(yè)腫瘤中,其中一種就是砷所致肺癌。有研究表明飲用水砷高暴露(飲用水砷濃度>500 μg/L)與糖尿病發(fā)生密切相關(guān)[19]。
流行病學(xué)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)合并糖尿病可增加腫瘤的發(fā)病風(fēng)險(xiǎn),且術(shù)后病死率及全因死亡率均升高[20-22],是肺癌發(fā)病及預(yù)后的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素。HSIEH等[23]發(fā)現(xiàn)糖尿病可增加肺癌發(fā)病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)〔OR=1.296,95%CI(1.214,1.384),P<0.001〕,COUGHLIN 等[24]及 JEE 等[25]也得出了相似的研究結(jié)論。一項(xiàng)包括了442例晚期非小細(xì)胞肺癌(NSCLC)患者的回顧性研究顯示糖尿病可縮短肺癌患者的生存期[26]。一項(xiàng)meta分析表明糖尿病組肺癌患者的總體生存期短于非糖尿病組〔HR=1.25,95%CI(1.10,1.49),P=0.001〕,這一現(xiàn)象在行手術(shù)治療的NSCLC患者中更明顯[27]。但關(guān)于糖尿病對(duì)肺癌發(fā)病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的研究結(jié)論并不完全一致,有研究觀察到糖尿病組與對(duì)照組肺癌的發(fā)病率間無(wú)明顯差異[28-30]。還有學(xué)者認(rèn)為,罹患糖尿病是肺癌患者生存的保護(hù)因素[31-32]。有研究報(bào)道合并糖尿病的晚期NSCLC患者較未合并糖尿病的患者生存期更長(zhǎng),合并糖尿病患者生存風(fēng)險(xiǎn)比為0.69〔95%CI(0.56,0.85),P<0.05〕[33],這與挪威的一項(xiàng)多中心隊(duì)列研究結(jié)果一致[34]。還有研究表明合并糖尿病可增加肺癌患者術(shù)后死亡風(fēng)險(xiǎn),但對(duì)腫瘤復(fù)發(fā)率及總生存期無(wú)明顯影響[35]。出現(xiàn)上述研究結(jié)論的差異可能與隨訪時(shí)間不同、未考慮降糖藥物使用等因素有關(guān),糖尿病對(duì)肺癌的發(fā)病及預(yù)后的影響尚需更多設(shè)計(jì)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)难芯縼?lái)證實(shí)。
腫瘤的形成十分復(fù)雜,惡化過程可大致分為啟動(dòng)、促進(jìn)和進(jìn)展,各種影響因子可以通過其中的一個(gè)或多個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)起作用。糖尿病可能是通過高糖血癥、胰島素抵抗及高胰島素血癥、慢性炎性反應(yīng)、免疫系統(tǒng)功能異常及糖尿病微血管病變等機(jī)制影響肺癌的發(fā)生發(fā)展。糖尿病對(duì)肺癌的影響及其機(jī)制要點(diǎn)歸納見表1。
表1 糖尿病對(duì)肺癌的影響及其機(jī)制要點(diǎn)Table 1 Effect of diabetes on lung cancer and its mechanism
4.1 高糖血癥 與正常組織相比,腫瘤組織對(duì)糖代謝的需求更加旺盛,早在80多年前WARBURG等[36]就發(fā)現(xiàn)了腫瘤的這種以無(wú)氧糖酵解為主的高葡萄糖代謝率現(xiàn)象,故又被稱為Warburg現(xiàn)象。惡性腫瘤高代謝率的另外一個(gè)特征是傾向于磷酸戊糖途徑[37],除供能外,還可以提供核苷酸合成的原料,促進(jìn)增殖。這使Warburg現(xiàn)象再次受到人們的重視,因?yàn)橥ㄟ^無(wú)氧糖酵解途徑產(chǎn)生滿足腫瘤生長(zhǎng)所需的三磷酸腺苷(ATP)所消耗的葡萄糖較氧化磷酸化途徑明顯增多。而糖尿病患者長(zhǎng)期處于高血糖狀態(tài),這就為腫瘤細(xì)胞單克隆繁殖提供了適宜的環(huán)境。有證據(jù)表明氧化應(yīng)激反應(yīng)基因?qū)Ω哐敲舾?,可調(diào)節(jié)體內(nèi)活性氧的水平[38],糖毒性產(chǎn)生的氧化應(yīng)激反應(yīng)產(chǎn)物可破壞正常DNA的雙螺旋結(jié)構(gòu),促進(jìn)腫瘤的產(chǎn)生,這一反應(yīng)可在高胰島素血癥的作用下增強(qiáng)[39]。這種以無(wú)氧糖酵解為主的代謝方式可增加內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞的通透性并改變基底膜的結(jié)構(gòu),從而促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞的浸潤(rùn)與轉(zhuǎn)移[21,40]。HAN 等[41]發(fā)現(xiàn),高濃度葡萄糖還可以通過誘導(dǎo)表皮生長(zhǎng)因子(EGF)表達(dá)和EGF受體的反式激活來(lái)誘導(dǎo)新生血管的形成,促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞的生長(zhǎng)及轉(zhuǎn)移。
4.2 胰島素抵抗及高胰島素血癥 T2DM患者均存在不同程度的胰島素抵抗,負(fù)反饋引起胰島素分泌增多,也可以是外源性補(bǔ)充胰島素或是使用胰島素促泌劑而導(dǎo)致高胰島素血癥。胰島素可以通過抑制肝臟合成胰島素樣生長(zhǎng)因子結(jié)合蛋白,從而使血液循環(huán)中游離的具有生物活性的胰島素樣生長(zhǎng)因子-1(IGF-1)水平升高[42]。胰島素及IGF-1對(duì)腫瘤細(xì)胞有多方面的影響。人類的腫瘤細(xì)胞大多高表達(dá)胰島素受體及IGF-1受體[43]。胰島素受體被激活可誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞的有絲分裂[44],因此可以推測(cè)胰島素可促進(jìn)肺癌發(fā)生和進(jìn)展。有meta分析表明高胰島素血癥是多種惡性腫瘤的高危因素[45]。胰島素不僅可以直接影響腫瘤細(xì)胞,也可能通過IGF-1間接產(chǎn)生致瘤效應(yīng)[46]。有學(xué)者發(fā)現(xiàn)IGF-1的促進(jìn)細(xì)胞有絲分裂及抑制凋亡的潛能強(qiáng)于胰島素[47],高濃度的IGF-1可增加多種上皮細(xì)胞腫瘤的發(fā)病風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[48]。高水平的ICF-1可能通過對(duì)性激素的調(diào)節(jié)而影響乳腺癌、子宮內(nèi)膜癌、前列腺癌及其他腫瘤的發(fā)生[49]。IGF-1及其受體還可通過誘導(dǎo)血管內(nèi)皮生長(zhǎng)因子(VEGF)基因轉(zhuǎn)錄,上調(diào)VEGF的表達(dá),促進(jìn)新生血管形成,從而促進(jìn)腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展[50]。當(dāng)胰島素受體和ICF-1受體通過各自的配體相互作用時(shí),多種信號(hào)通路被激活,這些通路可能促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞增殖、侵襲、轉(zhuǎn)移,抑制凋亡,從而導(dǎo)致多種腫瘤細(xì)胞的發(fā)生和進(jìn)展[51]。
4.3 慢性炎性反應(yīng)及氧化應(yīng)激 脂肪組織是一個(gè)活躍的內(nèi)分泌器官,可以產(chǎn)生游離脂肪酸、單核細(xì)胞化學(xué)趨化因子、纖溶酶原激活物抑制劑-1、瘦素、脂聯(lián)素、腫瘤壞死因子α以及IL-6等[52-53],導(dǎo)致持久的慢性炎性反應(yīng),這些炎性遞質(zhì)可以調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞有絲分裂活性,可能是重要的致癌因素。動(dòng)物實(shí)驗(yàn)證實(shí)肥胖動(dòng)物的腫瘤更具侵襲性[52]。腫瘤組織這種無(wú)氧代謝可以增強(qiáng)氧化應(yīng)激反應(yīng)和慢性炎癥狀態(tài),這減弱了細(xì)胞的抗氧化能力,使易感細(xì)胞惡性轉(zhuǎn)化。高濃度的自由基和氧化劑誘導(dǎo)生成強(qiáng)效的活性氧,損傷DNA,引起突變;活性氧也可以和細(xì)胞內(nèi)的小分子如蛋白、脂質(zhì)等相互反應(yīng),產(chǎn)生衍生物,破壞細(xì)胞內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài),最終使細(xì)胞惡變[54]。
4.4 免疫功能紊亂 糖尿病患者存在細(xì)胞免疫功能紊亂、T淋巴細(xì)胞亞群比例失調(diào),長(zhǎng)期的高血糖狀態(tài)促進(jìn)血清IgG糖基化使體液免疫功能受損[55]。機(jī)體免疫監(jiān)視及殺傷功能減弱,突變的細(xì)胞得以繼續(xù)存活,發(fā)展為惡性腫瘤。糖尿病患者可能由于微血管病變、氧氣及營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)交換存在障礙、肺泡巨噬細(xì)胞合成溶菌酶的能力下降,進(jìn)一步削弱呼吸道局部抗感染能力,同時(shí)高血糖有利于細(xì)菌生長(zhǎng),可反復(fù)發(fā)生呼吸道感染。有證據(jù)表明糖尿病患者細(xì)菌性肺炎及肺結(jié)核的患病率明顯升高[56]。研究表明肺部慢性微生物感染導(dǎo)致肺癌發(fā)生與內(nèi)毒素激活環(huán)氧化酶-2(COX2)和EGF活化有關(guān)[57],還可引起支氣管肺泡干細(xì)胞增殖,致上皮細(xì)胞癌變[58]。YU等[59]的研究結(jié)果表明,肺結(jié)核患者患肺癌的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)比無(wú)結(jié)核病史的患者約高11倍。
4.5 治療受限 糖尿病患者抗癌治療過程中發(fā)生嚴(yán)重毒副作用的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)更高,限制了積極治療方案的使用[60],這些也是導(dǎo)致預(yù)后較差的因素。
4.6 糖尿病微血管病變 值得一提的是,也有研究認(rèn)為糖尿病是肺癌的保護(hù)因素,主要是基于糖尿病血管病變可能阻止腫瘤細(xì)胞侵襲的理論。BARTLING等[61-62]的回顧性臨床研究發(fā)現(xiàn)糖尿病組NCSLC患者術(shù)后20個(gè)月的中位生存率較非糖尿病組高(76%與59%,P=0.048),且轉(zhuǎn)移率更低,這一現(xiàn)象在合并糖尿病腎病的患者中更明顯,這可能與血管內(nèi)膜增生、血管壁基底膜糖基化形成屏障,影響肺癌細(xì)胞侵襲和轉(zhuǎn)移有關(guān),與HANBALI等[32]認(rèn)為糖尿病可降低肺癌轉(zhuǎn)移風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的觀點(diǎn)一致。糖尿病腎病患者細(xì)胞外基質(zhì)的糖基化程度較糖尿病未并發(fā)腎病患者高[63-64],從側(cè)面印證了上述結(jié)論。尸檢研究數(shù)據(jù)也表明與糖尿病腎病相關(guān)的血管病變可阻礙腫瘤細(xì)胞的轉(zhuǎn)移[65]。但多數(shù)研究結(jié)果表明糖尿病是肺癌患者長(zhǎng)期生存的危險(xiǎn)因素,可能的原因是糖尿病血管病變可延緩但不能阻止疾病進(jìn)展,且隨著糖尿病病程的延長(zhǎng),糖尿病相關(guān)并發(fā)癥的累積也會(huì)增加患者死亡風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。
大量研究表明降糖藥物可以影響肺癌的發(fā)生及發(fā)展,各類藥物除了降血糖和/或改善胰島素抵抗外,還有其各自特殊的致癌或者抗癌機(jī)制。大多數(shù)學(xué)者認(rèn)為胰島素及其類似物、胰島素促泌劑可加重高胰島素血癥,是肺癌發(fā)病的危險(xiǎn)因素。胰島素可以使血液循環(huán)中游離的、具有生物活性的IGF-1升高[42],二者可通過促進(jìn)細(xì)胞有絲分裂、抑制凋亡功能[47]、促進(jìn)新生血管形成及影響體內(nèi)性激素水平[49]等機(jī)制產(chǎn)生致癌作用。大部分研究表明二甲雙胍為肺癌發(fā)病的保護(hù)因素,可能是通過抑制線粒體氧化呼吸鏈,減少ATP產(chǎn)生[66],激活5-腺苷單磷酸活化蛋白激酶(AMPK)信號(hào)旁路,抑制蛋白質(zhì)和脂質(zhì)合成,促進(jìn)分解代謝,從而達(dá)到抗腫瘤作用[67]。噻唑烷二酮類降糖藥也表現(xiàn)出抗癌效應(yīng),抗癌機(jī)制可能與二甲雙胍相似[68]。有少量研究報(bào)道α-葡萄糖苷酶抑制劑可降低肺癌發(fā)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn),但具體機(jī)制未明。新型降糖藥胰高血糖素樣肽-1(GLP-1)受體激動(dòng)劑、二基肽酶-Ⅳ(DPP-Ⅳ)抑制劑及鈉離子-葡萄糖同向轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)體-2(SGLT2)抑制劑可能由于臨床應(yīng)用時(shí)間短,缺乏足夠的隨訪資料,目前尚缺乏此類藥物對(duì)肺癌發(fā)病影響的研究報(bào)道。關(guān)于降糖藥物對(duì)肺癌影響的研究結(jié)論并不完全一致,還需更多設(shè)計(jì)嚴(yán)格的大樣本研究來(lái)證實(shí)。
糖尿病與肺癌均是老年人群的常見病,由于二者之間存在許多難以控制的混雜高危因素,且不同的研究存在研究人群、樣本量、統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)方法等差異,目前罹患糖尿病是否為肺癌發(fā)病及預(yù)后的危險(xiǎn)因素尚無(wú)定論。糖尿病影響肺癌的生物學(xué)機(jī)制也需進(jìn)一步研究證實(shí)。但臨床醫(yī)生仍應(yīng)警惕糖尿病患者,尤其是老年患者可能是肺癌的高危人群,提高對(duì)咳嗽、咯血、胸痛、消瘦等危險(xiǎn)信號(hào)的重視,以期篩查出早期患者[69]。希望有更多前瞻性臨床研究證實(shí)二甲雙胍等降糖藥物的抗腫瘤效應(yīng),這可能有利于改善糖尿病合并肺癌患者的預(yù)后。
作者貢獻(xiàn):程小龍進(jìn)行文章的構(gòu)思與設(shè)計(jì)、文章的可行性分析、文獻(xiàn)收集、撰寫論文并修訂;韓一平負(fù)責(zé)文章質(zhì)量控制及審校,對(duì)文章整體負(fù)責(zé)并監(jiān)督管理。
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(收稿日期:2017-11-20;修回日期:2018-01-20)
(本文編輯:趙躍翠)