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促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水的水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略研究

2015-06-01 09:03:11李太龍沈滿洪
關(guān)鍵詞:工業(yè)用水水價(jià)節(jié)水

李太龍,沈滿洪

(1. 浙江理工大學(xué)經(jīng)濟(jì)管理學(xué)院,浙江杭州 310018; 2. 寧波大學(xué)商學(xué)院,浙江寧波 315211)

促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水的水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略研究

李太龍1,沈滿洪2

(1. 浙江理工大學(xué)經(jīng)濟(jì)管理學(xué)院,浙江杭州 310018; 2. 寧波大學(xué)商學(xué)院,浙江寧波 315211)

我國(guó)工業(yè)水價(jià)既存在價(jià)格缺失的問題,又存在價(jià)格扭曲的問題。優(yōu)化工業(yè)水價(jià)具有直接價(jià)格效應(yīng)、結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整效應(yīng)、循環(huán)用水效應(yīng)、技術(shù)進(jìn)步效應(yīng)這四大效應(yīng)。工業(yè)水價(jià)應(yīng)由水利供水工程成本、制水企業(yè)成本、制水企業(yè)利潤(rùn)、污水治理成本、水生態(tài)保護(hù)成本和水資源所有者收益等部分構(gòu)成。促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水的水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略應(yīng)體現(xiàn)水資源稀缺程度、水資源外部性內(nèi)部化、制水企業(yè)的產(chǎn)業(yè)管制要求、各種供水的價(jià)格統(tǒng)籌和因地制宜地確定水價(jià)等原則。

工業(yè)用水;工業(yè)節(jié)水;水價(jià)調(diào)控

我國(guó)是缺水國(guó)家。實(shí)施最嚴(yán)格的水資源管理制度刻不容緩。雖然工業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整和技術(shù)升級(jí)使得我國(guó)單位工業(yè)增加值的工業(yè)用水量不斷下降[1],但是工業(yè)用水總量仍隨工業(yè)增加值的快速增長(zhǎng)而不斷上升,從2002年的1142.4億m3遞增到2011年的1461.6億m3。我國(guó)工業(yè)用水效率的提高和節(jié)水建設(shè)尚未實(shí)現(xiàn)工業(yè)用水總量的下降。賈紹鳳[2]研究表明,發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家工業(yè)化初期的用水量呈現(xiàn)快速增長(zhǎng)的趨勢(shì),而后達(dá)到零增長(zhǎng)甚至負(fù)增長(zhǎng),工業(yè)節(jié)水可以實(shí)現(xiàn)工業(yè)用水總量的下降。賈紹鳳[3]、李眺[4]對(duì)中國(guó)工業(yè)企業(yè)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),企業(yè)對(duì)水價(jià)敏感。這意味著價(jià)格杠桿對(duì)工業(yè)節(jié)水有效。深化工業(yè)水價(jià)改革,有助于促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水、提高用水效率。

一、工業(yè)水價(jià)影響工業(yè)節(jié)水的機(jī)理分析

價(jià)格杠桿的基本原理是通過提高水價(jià)來降低用水需求。雖然學(xué)術(shù)界關(guān)于工業(yè)用水和水價(jià)關(guān)系的研究較少,但既有研究大多證實(shí)工業(yè)用水的需求價(jià)格彈性為負(fù),即價(jià)格杠桿起作用。盡管有國(guó)外研究者提出,彈性數(shù)值較大時(shí),應(yīng)降低水價(jià),以增加工業(yè)用水,提高工業(yè)產(chǎn)出。但這一論斷的出發(fā)點(diǎn)是當(dāng)?shù)厮Y源充足,例如加拿大、法國(guó)以及美國(guó)五大湖地區(qū),并不適合水資源緊缺地區(qū)。大多數(shù)學(xué)者認(rèn)為,在提升水價(jià)減少工業(yè)用水的過程中,應(yīng)先減少水資源利用率低的行業(yè)和企業(yè)的用水量,以促使工業(yè)企業(yè)投入更多資金來提高水資源利用效率,這樣不僅不會(huì)妨礙工業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展,反而會(huì)通過工業(yè)節(jié)水大大提高全社會(huì)的用水福利。

1.工業(yè)用水的需求價(jià)格彈性回顧

發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的工業(yè)化時(shí)間較早,其工業(yè)用水需求與水價(jià)關(guān)系的研究主要出現(xiàn)在20世紀(jì)七八十年代。DeRooy[5]在研究美國(guó)新澤西州30個(gè)大型化工企業(yè)的工業(yè)用水需求時(shí),以平均成本方式核定企業(yè)自供水價(jià)格,將水價(jià)、勞動(dòng)投入、技術(shù)水平和產(chǎn)出等指標(biāo)體系作為用水需求方程的解釋變量,經(jīng)驗(yàn)結(jié)果表明新澤西州化工行業(yè)的用水需求受水價(jià)影響顯著。Ziegler等[6]使用截面數(shù)據(jù)研究美國(guó)阿肯色州23個(gè)用水最多的造紙和化工企業(yè)的工業(yè)用水需求,將邊際成本和平均成本定價(jià)引入工業(yè)用水需求方程,研究證實(shí)水價(jià)對(duì)造紙和化工行業(yè)的用水需求有顯著影響。Renzetti[7]依據(jù)工業(yè)用水的原水取水、預(yù)處理、循環(huán)用水和排污四個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)建立聯(lián)立方程模型研究加拿大卑斯省制造業(yè)的工業(yè)用水需求,使用包含372個(gè)觀測(cè)值的企業(yè)層面截面數(shù)據(jù)測(cè)算得出石油化工業(yè)、重工業(yè)、林木業(yè)和輕工業(yè)等四個(gè)行業(yè)的原水取水的價(jià)格彈性依次為-0.119、-0.249、-0.506和-0.537,原水取水和循環(huán)用水的交叉價(jià)格彈性分別為0.146、0.253、0.156和0.209。這些彈性測(cè)算結(jié)果表明,提高原水取水的價(jià)格會(huì)促使各行業(yè)企業(yè)減少原水使用,增加循環(huán)用水。

隨著我國(guó)水資源危機(jī)的加劇,國(guó)內(nèi)外學(xué)者開始關(guān)注中國(guó)工業(yè)用水的效率和需求問題。由于水價(jià)政策主要由地方政府制定和實(shí)施,所以國(guó)內(nèi)學(xué)者研究水價(jià)和工業(yè)用水問題多從省市層面著眼。毛春梅[8]估算江蘇省棉紡織業(yè)用水的需求價(jià)格彈性為-0.157,建議改革現(xiàn)有水價(jià)制度以提高工業(yè)用水效率。劉昕等[9]利用咸陽市1991—2005年的工業(yè)用水?dāng)?shù)據(jù)估計(jì)咸陽工業(yè)用水的需求價(jià)格彈性為-0.711,認(rèn)為工業(yè)水價(jià)杠桿作用明顯且存在較大的提價(jià)空間。張寧等[10]分析浙江省各地市工業(yè)用水的資源配置效率后認(rèn)為,浙江的工業(yè)節(jié)水潛力較大,可以通過提高水價(jià)的方式促進(jìn)節(jié)水。

相對(duì)而言,國(guó)際學(xué)者更注重研究中國(guó)省際和行業(yè)層面的工業(yè)用水問題。Wang等[11]利用包含兩千多個(gè)觀測(cè)值的大中型制造業(yè)企業(yè)截面數(shù)據(jù)分析中國(guó)工業(yè)生產(chǎn)的邊際生產(chǎn)力模型,發(fā)現(xiàn)1993年全部16個(gè)行業(yè)的工業(yè)用水邊際產(chǎn)出值廣泛分布在從0.05元/噸至26.83元/t的區(qū)間,平均為2.45元/t,而當(dāng)年全國(guó)各地的水價(jià)介于0.70元/t至1.20元/t之間,因此工業(yè)水價(jià)存在較大的提價(jià)空間。在假定工業(yè)用水成本按照邊際產(chǎn)出值定價(jià)后,他們進(jìn)一步測(cè)算各行業(yè)用水的需求價(jià)格彈性介于-0.57至-1.2之間,平均為-1.03。這表明提升水價(jià)能有效促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水效果。Fujii等[12]采用有向距離函數(shù)方法測(cè)算中國(guó)工業(yè)用水的效率和影子價(jià)格,估計(jì)1996至2007年的省際和行業(yè)面板數(shù)據(jù)得到結(jié)果表明,中國(guó)工業(yè)用水的省際差異和行業(yè)特征突出,工業(yè)用水效率在水資源短缺的北方省份更高,除石油冶煉外其他行業(yè)的工業(yè)用水效率逐年提高,六大耗水行業(yè)中紡織和石油冶煉行業(yè)用水的影子價(jià)格較高,而造紙和電力行業(yè)較低。

盡管受地區(qū)水資源稟賦差異和工業(yè)行業(yè)布局特點(diǎn)的影響,學(xué)術(shù)界測(cè)算工業(yè)用水需求的價(jià)格彈性有一定差別,但普遍認(rèn)為價(jià)格杠桿對(duì)降低工業(yè)用水需求作用明顯,在水資源緊缺背景下,應(yīng)提高水價(jià)促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水。

2.工業(yè)水價(jià)的公共供水或自供水選擇效應(yīng)

按照價(jià)格杠桿的一般規(guī)律,以居民生活用水為代表,水價(jià)越高,用水量越低。但是工業(yè)用水并不必然如此,因?yàn)樵S多工業(yè)企業(yè)的用水不是來自公共供水系統(tǒng)。事實(shí)上,用水量大的工業(yè)企業(yè)通常建有自供水系統(tǒng),它們引用地表水或抽取地下水加以凈化處理后使用。其中,在使用地表水還是地下水的選擇上,自供水企業(yè)不僅要考慮地理位置和降水情況、水源條件、取水設(shè)施和原水凈化處理成本等因素,也要考慮地表水和地下水的水資源價(jià)格差別。因此,公共供水和自供水之間、地表水和地下水之間都存在一定的替代性,只提高公共供水定價(jià)未必會(huì)降低工業(yè)用水量,反而可能導(dǎo)致更多企業(yè)選擇自供水,即工業(yè)用水的水價(jià)政策具有公共供水或自供水選擇效應(yīng),見圖1。

圖1 企業(yè)用水的替代與選擇

如果自供水成本小于公共供水成本,在公共供水價(jià)格提升的情況下,工業(yè)企業(yè)的理性選擇是盡量減少來自公共供水系統(tǒng)的用水,并且始終會(huì)做出這樣的選擇。工業(yè)企業(yè)在取用自供水時(shí),到底用地表水還是地下水,取決于水質(zhì)相當(dāng)?shù)那闆r下取水成本的高低,哪個(gè)水源的取水成本低就取用哪個(gè)水源。在水質(zhì)不同的情況下,取決于取用不同水源的性價(jià)比,哪個(gè)性價(jià)比高就選用哪個(gè)。工業(yè)節(jié)水價(jià)格調(diào)控的目的是減少區(qū)域社會(huì)的取水總量,償還部分生態(tài)用水。如果公共供水的價(jià)格上升,反而導(dǎo)致全社會(huì)取水量增加,那就起到適得其反的效果。另外,與居民生活用水不同,除了食品和飲料行業(yè)外,工業(yè)用水對(duì)水質(zhì)的要求相對(duì)較低,而且不同企業(yè)的要求也不一致,所以公共供水的定價(jià)在用水量大的企業(yè)看來非常不經(jīng)濟(jì)。

3.工業(yè)水價(jià)對(duì)工業(yè)節(jié)水的傳遞機(jī)理

價(jià)格機(jī)制是市場(chǎng)機(jī)制的核心。在水資源需求具有彈性的情況下,需求法則必然發(fā)揮作用。

(1)工業(yè)水價(jià)促進(jìn)節(jié)水的直接價(jià)格效應(yīng)

長(zhǎng)期以來我國(guó)一直實(shí)行福利水價(jià),水資源價(jià)格遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)低于供求均衡價(jià)格。這既造成我國(guó)水資源的短缺又造成嚴(yán)重的水資源浪費(fèi)。如圖2所示,P2所示的福利水價(jià)加劇了水資源供需的矛盾,導(dǎo)致水資源的過量需求比均衡數(shù)量超出(Q2-Q1)。此時(shí)水價(jià)不能反映水資源的全部經(jīng)濟(jì)價(jià)值,理性個(gè)體也會(huì)從自身的利益出發(fā),過度消耗水資源。這種福利水價(jià)政策將會(huì)造成社會(huì)總福利的下降。

過低的水價(jià)不僅會(huì)造成水資源的掠奪性開發(fā),而且會(huì)阻礙用水效率的提高以及節(jié)水技術(shù)的推廣。比如,在水價(jià)偏低的情況下,節(jié)約用水并不能給企業(yè)帶來太大的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益,反而會(huì)增加運(yùn)行成本,因此企業(yè)缺乏節(jié)水的積極性和動(dòng)力。相反,如果把工業(yè)水價(jià)提高到均衡水平P1,Q1的供水量就能夠保持供求均衡。相對(duì)于Q2的過度用水需要,實(shí)現(xiàn)了(Q2-Q1)的節(jié)水效果,這就是市場(chǎng)機(jī)制的威力。正因?yàn)槿绱?,要讓市?chǎng)機(jī)制在水資源配置中發(fā)揮決定性作用。

圖2 福利水價(jià)的福利損失

(2)工業(yè)水價(jià)促進(jìn)節(jié)水的結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整效應(yīng)

在工業(yè)水價(jià)較低的背景下,由于要素成本沒有反映要素稀缺性,即使是高耗水的粗放型工業(yè)企業(yè)也可能在市場(chǎng)中獲得利潤(rùn)甚至超額利潤(rùn)。在工業(yè)水價(jià)達(dá)到均衡水價(jià)的情況下,工業(yè)企業(yè)就要權(quán)衡:繼續(xù)從事高耗水產(chǎn)業(yè)的生產(chǎn)還是轉(zhuǎn)向低耗水產(chǎn)業(yè)的生產(chǎn)?只要在均衡水價(jià)下低耗水行業(yè)的利潤(rùn)率高于高耗水行業(yè)的利潤(rùn)率,工業(yè)企業(yè)必然轉(zhuǎn)產(chǎn)。這就是工業(yè)水價(jià)可能帶來的結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整效應(yīng)。

(3)工業(yè)水價(jià)促進(jìn)節(jié)水的循環(huán)用水效應(yīng)

循環(huán)用水是工業(yè)節(jié)水中既要發(fā)揮價(jià)格杠桿作用又不能影響工業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的決定性因素。工業(yè)用水可以分為兩類:一類是沒有使用過的新鮮水,也稱作自然水;另一類是已經(jīng)使用過的廢水或污水經(jīng)凈化處理而得的再生水。從廣義上看,循環(huán)用水即是使用再生水。狹義上看,循環(huán)用水需要工業(yè)企業(yè)、車間或工段的給水排水系統(tǒng)組成一個(gè)閉路循環(huán)的用水系統(tǒng),將系統(tǒng)內(nèi)產(chǎn)生的廢水經(jīng)適當(dāng)處理后重復(fù)使用。這一過程中,不補(bǔ)充或少補(bǔ)充新鮮水,不排放或少排放廢水。

循環(huán)用水從兩個(gè)方面促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水:一方面,企業(yè)采用循環(huán)用水代替新鮮水,直接具有減量用水的節(jié)水效應(yīng)。另一方面,企業(yè)增加循環(huán)用水意味著廢水處理更徹底,直接減少廢水排放,間接減輕水環(huán)境的生態(tài)修復(fù)壓力,相當(dāng)于減少生態(tài)用水和增加生產(chǎn)生活用水,因而具有“固本培元”的節(jié)水效應(yīng)。

如果工業(yè)用新鮮水來自自供水系統(tǒng),用水成本主要是水資源費(fèi)、原水處理成本和排污費(fèi);如果來自公共供水系統(tǒng),用水成本主要是工業(yè)水價(jià),包含水資源費(fèi)、商品水價(jià)和排污費(fèi)。循環(huán)用水的成本主要是再生水成本,即污水或廢水凈化處理并再生的成本。工業(yè)廢水在排放前,企業(yè)仍需自行處理達(dá)到排放標(biāo)準(zhǔn),這也需要一定的處理成本。按照長(zhǎng)期均衡的觀點(diǎn),當(dāng)新鮮水使用成本與廢水處理成本之和大于再生水成本時(shí),企業(yè)就會(huì)采用或增加循環(huán)用水替代新鮮水。這是價(jià)格杠桿推動(dòng)循環(huán)用水效應(yīng)起到節(jié)水作用的內(nèi)在機(jī)理。

工業(yè)部門中用水量最大的是石油、化工、煤炭、電力、鋼鐵、冶金、造紙、食品和飲料等行業(yè)。盡管不同行業(yè)企業(yè)對(duì)水量、水質(zhì)和水溫有不同要求,但工業(yè)用水的主要用途仍可分為兩大類:一是原料用水,這是直接作為原料的生產(chǎn)用水,是消耗性用水,占工業(yè)用水總量的0.5%~10%,主要用于食品和飲料行業(yè),對(duì)水質(zhì)要求高;二是產(chǎn)品處理用水、鍋爐用水、冷卻用水和清潔用水等非消耗性用水,它們主要用于石油、化工、煤炭、電力、鋼鐵、冶金、造紙等行業(yè),其中冷卻用水占工業(yè)用水總量的60%~70%左右。工業(yè)用水總量雖大,但實(shí)際消耗并不多,非消耗用水對(duì)水質(zhì)的要求也不高,90%以上的非消耗用水在凈化降溫處理后都可循環(huán)使用。這為發(fā)揮水價(jià)調(diào)節(jié)作用推動(dòng)循環(huán)用水奠定了基礎(chǔ),也為工業(yè)節(jié)水提供了空間。

但是,采用再生水技術(shù)以及循環(huán)供水系統(tǒng)都需要工業(yè)企業(yè)進(jìn)行固定成本投入。如何讓企業(yè)對(duì)有關(guān)的節(jié)水項(xiàng)目進(jìn)行投資成為需要攻克的難關(guān)。從短期均衡的觀點(diǎn)看,只有新鮮水使用成本與廢水處理成本之和超過再生水成本,才能使循環(huán)用水真正發(fā)揮“循環(huán)且經(jīng)濟(jì)”的效應(yīng)。而且,水價(jià)提升幅度越大,企業(yè)采用循環(huán)用水的積極性越高,工業(yè)節(jié)水效果越明顯。

(4)工業(yè)水價(jià)促進(jìn)節(jié)水的技術(shù)進(jìn)步效應(yīng)

當(dāng)水價(jià)調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制起作用時(shí),工業(yè)企業(yè)還有多種辦法節(jié)約用水,例如采用先進(jìn)的節(jié)水生產(chǎn)技術(shù)和工藝。這會(huì)帶動(dòng)有關(guān)科研單位和工業(yè)企業(yè)合作,為改進(jìn)涉水技術(shù)工藝和研發(fā)節(jié)水治污設(shè)備進(jìn)行智力投入和資金投入。科技創(chuàng)新投入和技術(shù)知識(shí)存量具有累積效應(yīng)和溢出效應(yīng),會(huì)持續(xù)推動(dòng)節(jié)水技術(shù)進(jìn)步,因此,借助價(jià)格杠桿可以撬動(dòng)節(jié)水技術(shù)市場(chǎng),形成節(jié)水技術(shù)進(jìn)步效應(yīng)。

圖3 工業(yè)水價(jià)的節(jié)水效應(yīng)傳遞機(jī)理

總之,工業(yè)水價(jià)從低于均衡價(jià)格到均衡價(jià)格的調(diào)整,可以實(shí)現(xiàn)四大節(jié)水效應(yīng):一是遏制過度用水,獲取節(jié)水價(jià)格效應(yīng);二是倒逼產(chǎn)業(yè)轉(zhuǎn)型,獲取節(jié)水結(jié)構(gòu)效應(yīng);三是促進(jìn)循環(huán)用水,獲取節(jié)水循環(huán)效應(yīng);四是促進(jìn)技術(shù)進(jìn)步,獲取節(jié)水技術(shù)效應(yīng)。其中,價(jià)格效應(yīng)還可以激勵(lì)工業(yè)企業(yè)之間開展水權(quán)交易,把水資源配置到能夠帶來最高效益的企業(yè);技術(shù)進(jìn)步對(duì)促進(jìn)循環(huán)用水和推動(dòng)產(chǎn)業(yè)轉(zhuǎn)型都可以發(fā)揮作用。因此,工業(yè)水價(jià)調(diào)控可以獲得綜合性的節(jié)水效果。

二、促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水的水資源定價(jià)內(nèi)涵與方式

長(zhǎng)期以來,學(xué)術(shù)界主要從水資源的公共品屬性和供水企業(yè)的公用事業(yè)性質(zhì)著手研究生活用水定價(jià),尤為關(guān)注居民生活用水的需求價(jià)格彈性[13]、成本收益均等的供水定價(jià)方式和低收入群體的生活用水保障等問題[14],但對(duì)工業(yè)用水的研究不多。為了適應(yīng)水資源日益緊缺的變化趨勢(shì)并滿足經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì)的發(fā)展需要,水資源定價(jià)研究開始轉(zhuǎn)變視角,從以資源配置效率為目標(biāo)轉(zhuǎn)為兼顧經(jīng)濟(jì)效率、社會(huì)公平和環(huán)境保護(hù)等多重目標(biāo)。

1.水資源定價(jià)內(nèi)涵與方式回顧

學(xué)術(shù)界一般認(rèn)為水價(jià)應(yīng)包含三部分:體現(xiàn)水資源所有權(quán)的水資源費(fèi)(或水資源稅)、水作為商品的價(jià)格和為治理水污染及保護(hù)水生態(tài)所支付的環(huán)境水價(jià)(或水環(huán)境稅)。沈滿洪等[15]對(duì)水價(jià)的內(nèi)涵進(jìn)行細(xì)致梳理后給出如下定義:“水價(jià)是由政府相關(guān)部門根據(jù)水資源產(chǎn)權(quán)狀況、水資源供需狀況、供水成本以及用水戶承受能力等因素制定的反映水資源稀缺性程度的杠桿,是用水戶獲得每單位水資源時(shí),應(yīng)向供水企業(yè)支付的貨幣金額?!?/p>

在可以不斷增加供水量來滿足用水需求的情況下,按照供水企業(yè)制水的邊際成本定價(jià)是水資源有效配置的最優(yōu)定價(jià)方式,但供水企業(yè)制水的固定成本遠(yuǎn)高于可變成本,所以平均成本定價(jià)或兩部制定價(jià)是能夠保證供水企業(yè)收回成本的次優(yōu)定價(jià)方式[16]。兩部制定價(jià)包含兩個(gè)部分:一部分是與使用量無關(guān)的、定期支付的基本費(fèi)或容量水價(jià),另一部分是按使用量支付的從量費(fèi)或計(jì)量水價(jià)。作為公共品的水資源定價(jià)應(yīng)遵循服務(wù)費(fèi)用原則或自融資原則:用水戶應(yīng)為所享受的服務(wù)支付足夠的費(fèi)用,但不應(yīng)超出供水企業(yè)在提供這一服務(wù)時(shí)所產(chǎn)生的支出。在水量豐裕的季節(jié)、用水較少的時(shí)段或距離水源地較近的地段,供水成本較低,按照服務(wù)費(fèi)用原則,水價(jià)應(yīng)較低。因此,即便在同一地區(qū),水價(jià)也可隨用水季節(jié)、時(shí)段和地段做出調(diào)整。

為應(yīng)對(duì)水資源日益緊缺和水污染依然嚴(yán)峻的現(xiàn)實(shí),學(xué)術(shù)界日益關(guān)注水的生態(tài)價(jià)值、用水的負(fù)外部性和水的稀缺價(jià)值,因此,水資源定價(jià)開始包含生態(tài)水價(jià)、污染水價(jià)和資源水價(jià)等部分。除了供水企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)成本以外,引入基于水循環(huán)和水環(huán)境自凈化過程的水資源生態(tài)價(jià)值共同構(gòu)成供水的總成本,根據(jù)成本收益分析的均衡條件可得式(1):

(1)

式(1)中:p表示水價(jià);Q表示供水量;C(Q)表示供水企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)成本;v表示水在生態(tài)環(huán)境中的影子價(jià)格。影子價(jià)格反映的是為滿足用水需要所抽取的水資源在生態(tài)環(huán)境中的邊際價(jià)值。當(dāng)水資源緊缺或者取水對(duì)生態(tài)環(huán)境造成負(fù)擔(dān)時(shí),水的生態(tài)價(jià)值顯著為正,其影子價(jià)格也為正。從水價(jià)等于社會(huì)供水和生態(tài)環(huán)境供水總邊際成本的角度看,這是一種最優(yōu)定價(jià)方式。換一個(gè)視角,把v視為治理水污染的邊際成本,并按照污染者和使用者付費(fèi)原則根據(jù)污染程度向污水排放者收取相應(yīng)的污染水價(jià),這就“內(nèi)部化”了用水的負(fù)外部性,此時(shí)它是一種次優(yōu)定價(jià)方式。生態(tài)水價(jià)和污染水價(jià)都是環(huán)境水價(jià)的組成部分,它們分別衡量用水環(huán)節(jié)的上端和下端——原水抽取和污水排放——對(duì)水資源生態(tài)環(huán)境的負(fù)面影響,這種負(fù)面影響越大,相應(yīng)的水價(jià)越高。

還可以將v視為體現(xiàn)水資源稀缺價(jià)值的資源水價(jià)。按照需求側(cè)管理原則,當(dāng)水資源緊缺時(shí),水價(jià)應(yīng)提高至供水能力容許范圍之內(nèi)的價(jià)格水平上,通過水價(jià)杠桿降低用水需求達(dá)到控制用水總量并實(shí)現(xiàn)供需平衡的目的。即是說,按照制水的邊際成本定價(jià)僅在供水企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)能力和可用水資源充足時(shí)有效,當(dāng)供水能力不足或水資源緊缺時(shí),根據(jù)稀缺程度加價(jià)才能提高水資源的配置效率并實(shí)現(xiàn)供需平衡。其中,遞增的階梯定價(jià)是降低用水需求的主要加價(jià)方式,這是因?yàn)殡S著用水量的增加,水資源的稀缺價(jià)值越來越高。水資源稀缺不僅意味著生產(chǎn)和生活用水稀缺,也一定意味著生態(tài)用水稀缺,所以資源水價(jià)應(yīng)包含生態(tài)水價(jià)。

無論環(huán)境水價(jià)(包括生態(tài)水價(jià)和污染水價(jià))還是資源水價(jià)(包含生態(tài)水價(jià))都表明,水資源定價(jià)政策已經(jīng)不僅是水資源管理的重要方式,而且是水生態(tài)和水環(huán)境社會(huì)化綜合治理的重要手段。水資源日益緊缺的現(xiàn)實(shí)使得不同經(jīng)濟(jì)部門、不同地區(qū)、不同產(chǎn)業(yè)和行業(yè)甚至生態(tài)環(huán)境都競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性地利用水資源。不恰當(dāng)?shù)乃Y源定價(jià)政策會(huì)帶來經(jīng)濟(jì)、社會(huì)和環(huán)境的多重?fù)p失。無效的水價(jià)政策一方面使供水或用水的“跑冒滴漏”現(xiàn)象嚴(yán)重,導(dǎo)致原水抽取過度和利用效率低下,無法準(zhǔn)確反映水資源的稀缺價(jià)值;另一方面還使污水排放過量,導(dǎo)致水環(huán)境惡化并加劇水資源短缺,不能有效內(nèi)部化污水排放的負(fù)外部性。所以,無效的水價(jià)政策會(huì)帶來全社會(huì)用水的福利損失。

2.促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水的水資源定價(jià)內(nèi)涵

從水資源價(jià)格的組成來看,水資源費(fèi)、商品水價(jià)和環(huán)境水價(jià)對(duì)工業(yè)用水的影響相互交織又各自獨(dú)立。

首先,由于工業(yè)水價(jià)政策具有供水系統(tǒng)選擇效應(yīng),所以工業(yè)節(jié)水的水資源定價(jià)內(nèi)涵重在水資源費(fèi)和環(huán)境水價(jià)(包括生態(tài)水價(jià)和污染水價(jià)),它們應(yīng)對(duì)選擇公共供水或選擇自供水的工業(yè)企業(yè)同等有效。由于商品水價(jià)主要衡量公共供水企業(yè)的制水成本,而工業(yè)企業(yè)可以通過選擇自供水系統(tǒng)降低并內(nèi)化這部分制水成本,所以商品水價(jià)對(duì)工業(yè)節(jié)水的影響有限。

其次,水資源費(fèi)是水資源使用者為了獲得水資源使用權(quán)而向水資源所有者(包括國(guó)家和集體)支付的費(fèi)用,它是水資源所有權(quán)在經(jīng)濟(jì)上實(shí)現(xiàn)的重要形式。因此,在工業(yè)用水中,無論公共供水企業(yè)抽取原水還是自供水企業(yè)抽取原水,都應(yīng)繳納等同費(fèi)率的水資源費(fèi)。

再者,生態(tài)水價(jià)是社會(huì)生產(chǎn)和生活同生態(tài)環(huán)境競(jìng)爭(zhēng)使用水資源的價(jià)值體現(xiàn),是水資源使用者向水生態(tài)環(huán)境或水生態(tài)保護(hù)者支付的補(bǔ)償費(fèi)用。污染治理水價(jià)是水資源使用者用水后直接向環(huán)境排放污水或向城市污水集中處理設(shè)施排放污水需要繳納的費(fèi)用。在使用者和污染者付費(fèi)原則下,生態(tài)水價(jià)和污染水價(jià)是內(nèi)部化原水抽取和污水排放負(fù)外部性的重要經(jīng)濟(jì)手段。

由于原水抽取對(duì)生態(tài)環(huán)境的負(fù)外部性是由原水取用數(shù)量決定——即取水只有數(shù)量效應(yīng),所以無論選擇公共供水的企業(yè)還是選擇自供水的企業(yè),無論工業(yè)用水用途為何的企業(yè),都應(yīng)按照同樣的費(fèi)率結(jié)構(gòu)支付生態(tài)水價(jià)。在這一意義下,生態(tài)水價(jià)和水資源費(fèi)一致。

污染水價(jià)的含義有所不同。不同企業(yè)的廢水類型、濃度和數(shù)量不同,廢水處理成本和污染危害有差別——即廢水既有質(zhì)量效應(yīng)又有數(shù)量效應(yīng),所以原則上用水企業(yè)應(yīng)按照與其廢水種類相應(yīng)的費(fèi)率支付污染水價(jià)。當(dāng)前,依照環(huán)境保護(hù)法律法規(guī)規(guī)定,企業(yè)需在工業(yè)廢水處理達(dá)標(biāo)后再予排放。這樣,污染水價(jià)主要由用水企業(yè)承擔(dān),以實(shí)現(xiàn)負(fù)外部性的內(nèi)部化。但是,工業(yè)企業(yè)仍應(yīng)按照廢水處理后的排放標(biāo)準(zhǔn)支付相應(yīng)費(fèi)率的污染水價(jià),無論其用水來自公共供水系統(tǒng)還是自供水系統(tǒng)。在這一意義下,污染水價(jià)的定價(jià)費(fèi)率相對(duì)不同工業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)、行業(yè)和企業(yè)具有可變性。不過,需要注意的是,污染水價(jià)的制定應(yīng)依據(jù)污染者和使用者付費(fèi)原則,并不直接以節(jié)水為目的。

3.促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水的水資源定價(jià)組成

理論上講,水價(jià)是由不同的部分組成的。如果用p表示水價(jià),p1表示水利供水和制水工程成本,p2表示制水企業(yè)利潤(rùn),p3表示污水治理成本,p4表示水生態(tài)保護(hù)補(bǔ)償成本,p5表示水資源所有者收益,那么,水價(jià)的理論構(gòu)成為:

p=p1+p2+p3+p4+p5

(2)

在相當(dāng)長(zhǎng)的一段時(shí)間中,在勞動(dòng)價(jià)值論的指導(dǎo)下,我國(guó)的水價(jià)僅僅體現(xiàn)供水和制水工程成本p1和制水企業(yè)利潤(rùn)p2。隨著水環(huán)境污染問題的加劇,水價(jià)中增加了污水治理成本p3。至今,總體上還較少考慮水生態(tài)保護(hù)(補(bǔ)償)成本p4和水資源所有者收益p5。

供水和制水工程成本p1是同水資源稟賦和制水工藝與技術(shù)相關(guān)的,這個(gè)部分不能成為調(diào)控工業(yè)水價(jià)的變量,但是要加強(qiáng)制水企業(yè)的內(nèi)部管理,不斷提高管理效率和企業(yè)效益。

制水企業(yè)利潤(rùn)p2一般按照成本加成法確定,但是需要政府價(jià)格管理部門的管控。從目前自然壟斷行業(yè)職工收入普遍偏高的角度看,這個(gè)部分總體上被高估。從維護(hù)工業(yè)企業(yè)利益的角度,這個(gè)部分應(yīng)該是能降則降。

污水治理成本p3已經(jīng)被納入絕大多數(shù)地方的工業(yè)水價(jià)之中,也就是說部分實(shí)現(xiàn)了外部性內(nèi)部化。但是,污水治理成本被嚴(yán)重低估,導(dǎo)致污水治理不充分,達(dá)不到環(huán)境功能要求,尚未做到充分的外部性內(nèi)部化。這個(gè)部分可以成為工業(yè)水價(jià)調(diào)控的重要指標(biāo),其極限是達(dá)到污水治理的完全成本。

水生態(tài)保護(hù)補(bǔ)償成本p4是指給定的水資源是由于其他地區(qū)或其他主體生態(tài)保護(hù)的結(jié)果,由于他們保護(hù)了水生態(tài),放棄了經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的機(jī)會(huì),因此,需要用水戶對(duì)其進(jìn)行補(bǔ)償。目前,在工業(yè)水價(jià)中這個(gè)因素考慮極少。這也是一個(gè)外部性內(nèi)部化的問題,補(bǔ)償?shù)臉O限是水生態(tài)及其保護(hù)者的機(jī)會(huì)成本。

工業(yè)用水的水資源基本上屬于國(guó)家所有,但是,目前國(guó)家所有者的權(quán)益幾乎沒有考慮。目前收取的水資源費(fèi)實(shí)際上是水資源管理部門對(duì)水資源的管理維護(hù)費(fèi),而不是體現(xiàn)所有者權(quán)益的收益。因此,水資源所有者收益p5要納入工業(yè)水價(jià)之中,這是一個(gè)調(diào)控空間比較大的變量。

可見,污水治理成本、水生態(tài)保護(hù)補(bǔ)償成本、水資源所有者權(quán)益是工業(yè)水價(jià)中發(fā)揮價(jià)格杠桿作用、促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水的主要部分。

4.促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水的水資源定價(jià)方式

利用水價(jià)杠桿實(shí)現(xiàn)工業(yè)節(jié)水同時(shí)具有經(jīng)濟(jì)、社會(huì)和環(huán)境三重含義。在水資源日益緊缺的情況下,恰當(dāng)、合理的水價(jià)政策可以起到促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水效果,進(jìn)而保證工業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)的持續(xù)健康增長(zhǎng),提高社會(huì)各部門的用水效率,促進(jìn)水資源生態(tài)環(huán)境的不斷改善。這三重含義在工業(yè)節(jié)水的水資源定價(jià)中是一個(gè)有機(jī)整體。

邊際成本定價(jià)、平均成本定價(jià)和兩部制定價(jià)都不適用于工業(yè)節(jié)水定價(jià)。邊際成本定價(jià)雖然最優(yōu)但要求水價(jià)費(fèi)率變化極為靈活,可操作性差,在實(shí)踐中并不可行。單純以供水企業(yè)的邊際生產(chǎn)成本定價(jià)忽視了基于水循環(huán)和水環(huán)境自凈化過程的水資源生態(tài)價(jià)值,當(dāng)用水需求不能得到有效抑制時(shí),這一定價(jià)方式難以實(shí)現(xiàn)工業(yè)節(jié)水和水生態(tài)保護(hù)目標(biāo)。平均成本定價(jià)和兩部制定價(jià)盡管操作性較強(qiáng),但并不能達(dá)到工業(yè)節(jié)水目的。所以,適用于工業(yè)用水的定價(jià)方式應(yīng)是內(nèi)含生態(tài)水價(jià)、污染水價(jià)和資源水價(jià)的階梯定價(jià),并且為了達(dá)到控制用水需求的目的,應(yīng)以遞增的方式予以加價(jià),即遞增的階梯定價(jià)。

早在20世紀(jì)90年代,在水資源不充裕的國(guó)家和地區(qū)就已廣泛使用遞增的階梯水價(jià)作為工業(yè)節(jié)水的定價(jià)方式,比如意大利、墨西哥、葡萄牙、西班牙和美國(guó)中西部地區(qū),見表1。在西班牙,受水資源稀缺的限制,大多數(shù)地區(qū)水價(jià)的從量費(fèi)按照遞增的兩階梯設(shè)計(jì)。美國(guó)洛杉磯地區(qū)全年少雨而冬季降雨較多,為了節(jié)水,其工業(yè)水價(jià)不僅采用遞增的階梯水價(jià),而且聯(lián)合使用季節(jié)性水價(jià)和超額用水加價(jià),其中超額用水加價(jià)部分根據(jù)工業(yè)用水戶的歷史平均用水量核定。

總之,依照需求側(cè)管理原則,實(shí)施科學(xué)合理的水價(jià)政策有利于綜合實(shí)現(xiàn)環(huán)境保護(hù)、經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和工業(yè)節(jié)水目標(biāo)。工業(yè)水價(jià)應(yīng)當(dāng)準(zhǔn)確地反映經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展中遭遇的水資源緊缺危機(jī),反映水資源在生產(chǎn)、生活和生態(tài)環(huán)境中的稀缺價(jià)值,反映工業(yè)取水和污水排放對(duì)生態(tài)環(huán)境的負(fù)外部性影響。盡管依照社會(huì)和生態(tài)環(huán)境供水的總邊際成本制定工業(yè)水價(jià)政策是最優(yōu)定價(jià)方式,但其可行性差。遞增的階梯定價(jià)是較好的次優(yōu)選擇。明確區(qū)分水資源費(fèi)、商品水價(jià)、生態(tài)水價(jià)和污染水價(jià)等各組成部分的遞增階梯水價(jià)既能針對(duì)原水抽取的數(shù)量效應(yīng)起到減量化用水作用,又能針對(duì)廢水排放的數(shù)量和質(zhì)量效應(yīng)起到降低污染排放數(shù)量和強(qiáng)度的作用。

表1 部分國(guó)家的工業(yè)用水定價(jià)方式(以公共供水為例)

資料來源:根據(jù)The Price of Water: Trends in OECD Countries (Paris: OECD Publications, 1999)整理[17]。

三、促進(jìn)我國(guó)工業(yè)節(jié)水的水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略

價(jià)格機(jī)制是市場(chǎng)機(jī)制的核心。水價(jià)調(diào)控在促進(jìn)工業(yè)節(jié)水中具有關(guān)鍵作用。促進(jìn)我國(guó)工業(yè)節(jié)水的水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略是一個(gè)戰(zhàn)略體系。

1.體現(xiàn)資源稀缺程度的工業(yè)水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略

在工業(yè)水價(jià)的內(nèi)涵組成中,體現(xiàn)水資源稀缺價(jià)值的資源水價(jià)和體現(xiàn)水資源所有者權(quán)益的水資源費(fèi)是工業(yè)節(jié)水價(jià)格調(diào)控的主要變量。當(dāng)前,我國(guó)工業(yè)水價(jià)調(diào)控應(yīng)以充分體現(xiàn)國(guó)家作為水資源所有者的權(quán)益為重點(diǎn)。在未來一段時(shí)期,我國(guó)工業(yè)水價(jià)政策的制定應(yīng)把資源水價(jià)和實(shí)行階梯式計(jì)量定價(jià)作為深化工業(yè)水價(jià)改革的主要方向。

2.體現(xiàn)外部性內(nèi)部化的工業(yè)水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略

在工業(yè)用水的污染水價(jià)和生態(tài)水價(jià)中,完全、準(zhǔn)確的外部性內(nèi)部化定價(jià)政策不直接以工業(yè)節(jié)水為目的,但足額到位的排污收費(fèi)機(jī)制和兼顧效率公平的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償機(jī)制具有重要的工業(yè)節(jié)水效果。隨著水生態(tài)保護(hù)和水環(huán)境污染的產(chǎn)權(quán)界定技術(shù)的突破,尤其是水資源和污水的計(jì)量成本的下降,在使用者和污染者付費(fèi)原則下實(shí)現(xiàn)工業(yè)用水外部性內(nèi)部化已經(jīng)成為可能。在工業(yè)用水的上端——取水端,要實(shí)施“誰保護(hù),誰受益”和“誰使用,誰補(bǔ)償”的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償機(jī)制,在工業(yè)用水的下端——排水端,要體現(xiàn)“誰污染,誰治理”和“誰污染,誰付費(fèi)”的排污收費(fèi)機(jī)制。

3.體現(xiàn)產(chǎn)業(yè)管制要求的工業(yè)水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略

制水企業(yè)的管控是水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略有效實(shí)施的保障條件之一,商品水價(jià)是主要管控變量,其調(diào)控思路是“該漲的漲,該降的降”:一要管控制水成本,通過創(chuàng)新管理出效益;二要管控供水品質(zhì),通過多樣供水降成本;三要管控水廠利潤(rùn),通過控制收入促公平。水廠要想方設(shè)法降低制水成本、增加供水種類,滿足用水需求多樣化的要求,滿足工業(yè)用水價(jià)廉達(dá)標(biāo)不超標(biāo)的要求。要防止出現(xiàn)工業(yè)水價(jià)與供水企業(yè)的收入齊頭并進(jìn)但工業(yè)節(jié)水效果不明顯的現(xiàn)象。

4.體現(xiàn)各種供水統(tǒng)籌的工業(yè)水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略

工業(yè)節(jié)水的價(jià)格調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略不僅要反映在公共供水的水價(jià)之中,更要反映在自備供水的水價(jià)之中。如果對(duì)自備供水不加控制,工業(yè)節(jié)水最終會(huì)一場(chǎng)空。因此,必須要加強(qiáng)自備供水的監(jiān)管。首先,對(duì)于自備供水的企業(yè)都要申請(qǐng)登記,取得取水許可;第二,取水?dāng)?shù)量要納入?yún)^(qū)域社會(huì)的總量控制之中,絕對(duì)不能游離于總量之外;第三,政府部門要加強(qiáng)企業(yè)取水和排污的檢測(cè)監(jiān)管,堅(jiān)決杜絕偷采偷排現(xiàn)象;第四,根據(jù)企業(yè)取水和排污的情況收取體現(xiàn)水資源所有者權(quán)益的水資源費(fèi)、體現(xiàn)水生態(tài)保護(hù)的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償費(fèi)、體現(xiàn)水環(huán)境治理的污水治理費(fèi)等。

如此,自備供水的水價(jià)調(diào)控應(yīng)從四方面深化改革:取水許可收費(fèi)——基本費(fèi)和管理費(fèi)、取水計(jì)量收費(fèi)——水資源費(fèi)和生態(tài)補(bǔ)償費(fèi)、總量控制收費(fèi)——遞增的階梯定價(jià)和超額用水加價(jià)、排污計(jì)量收費(fèi)——(分級(jí)的)污水治理費(fèi)。

5.體現(xiàn)因地制宜原則的工業(yè)水價(jià)調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略

工業(yè)節(jié)水的價(jià)格調(diào)控戰(zhàn)略須因地制宜,注重調(diào)整水價(jià)結(jié)構(gòu),細(xì)化水價(jià)組成功能。水資源嚴(yán)重短缺的地區(qū)實(shí)施遞增的階梯式水價(jià)制度重在體現(xiàn)用水的稀缺價(jià)值和用水的公平原則——即以資源水價(jià)中的生態(tài)水價(jià)部分對(duì)給定的由其他地區(qū)或其他主體生態(tài)保護(hù)的水資源進(jìn)行生態(tài)補(bǔ)償。水資源短缺但不嚴(yán)重或水生態(tài)脆弱的地區(qū)也應(yīng)實(shí)施遞增的階梯式水價(jià)制度,但重在通過提升水價(jià)努力實(shí)現(xiàn)本地區(qū)的水資源供需平衡和工業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)良性發(fā)展。水資源比較富余同時(shí)水生態(tài)又良好的地區(qū)既可以采取固定費(fèi)率的計(jì)量水價(jià)也可以采取遞增的階梯式水價(jià),靈活的水價(jià)政策重在協(xié)調(diào)地區(qū)工業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和水生態(tài)保護(hù)的正外部性——如果正外部性高于地區(qū)工業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)的直接發(fā)展收益而且正外部性又能通過受益地區(qū)的水價(jià)政策得到補(bǔ)償,那么水資源富余且水生態(tài)良好的地區(qū)應(yīng)采用遞增的階梯式水價(jià)制度。

這樣,基于大調(diào)控觀的差異化政策,可發(fā)揮水價(jià)調(diào)控的全國(guó)性作用。在統(tǒng)一推進(jìn)節(jié)水的前提下,合理調(diào)配水資源供給那些節(jié)水潛力有限但工業(yè)用水效益突出的地區(qū)和省份,應(yīng)從整體上提高全國(guó)的工業(yè)用水效率。按照用水地區(qū)補(bǔ)償供水地區(qū)的角度,應(yīng)深化水價(jià)中的生態(tài)補(bǔ)償水價(jià)改革;按照國(guó)家大調(diào)控的角度,應(yīng)在水價(jià)中深化國(guó)家作為水資源所有者的權(quán)益改革,即水資源費(fèi)改革。按照兩步走的觀點(diǎn),工業(yè)用水的水價(jià)改革應(yīng)先進(jìn)行水資源費(fèi)改革再進(jìn)行生態(tài)水價(jià)改革。

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[9] 劉昕,李繼偉,朱崇輝,劉俊民. 工業(yè)用水量的價(jià)格彈性分析[J].節(jié)水灌溉,2009(10):68-70.

[10] 張寧,張媛媛. 浙江省工業(yè)用水的節(jié)水潛力及影響因素分析[J].給水排水,2011,37(8):62-67.

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[14] 姜翔程,周迅,宋夏陽. 我國(guó)城市水價(jià)定價(jià)方法研究進(jìn)展[J]. 河海大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào):哲學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)版,2013,15(3):51-55.

[15] 沈滿洪,陳慶能. 水資源經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)[M].北京:中國(guó)環(huán)境科學(xué)出版社, 2008.

[17] ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. The price of water: Trends in OECD countries[M]. Paris: OECD Publications, 1999.

Abstract: In China, industrial water has the problems of price deficiency and price distortion. Optimizing industrial water price has four significant effects, including direct price effects, structural adjustment effects, water recycling effects and technological progress effects. Industrial water price mainly consists of five sections: water construction and production costs, the profit of water providers, sewage treatment costs, water ecological protection costs and income of water resources owners. Therefore, regulation strategies of water price should abide by the following principles: reflecting the degree of water resources scarcity, internalization of water resources externalities, industrial regulation requirements of water control enterprises, overall planning on various water prices and pricing water according to local conditions.Key words: industrial water; industrial water conservation; water price regulation

Globalization of Contemporary Capitalism: A Critical Interpretation

TANG Zhengdong

(Department of Philosophy, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China)

Lisbon group regards globalization as a new social economic phenomenon from the perspective of central power sprawl. Gray regards globalization as a complex historical process from the perspective of the interaction between globalization and localization. Harvey regards globalization as a geopolitical plan from the perspective of spatial production of capitalism. Although these interpretations indicate different fields of vision, they have a common shortcoming: they fail to regard globalization of contemporary capitalism as a form of production relationship of capitalism of the present stage. Therefore, it is impossible for them to deeply understand the essential connotation of globalization from the perspective of historical materialism.Key words: globalization; capitalism; historical materialismFalse Noumenon of Law Justice in the Context of Interest Malediction: Rereading of Marx’sTheArgumentaboutActofWoodStealYAN Bing,et al(Business College of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China)

The Argument about Act of Steal Wood is a transition text of youth Marx’ thought “on the way”. Reappearance its historic condition and narrate logic is necessary for significances of thought history and realistic functions. Seeking immoral behind Steal Wood “imputation”, opening out reversal of nation essence with self-interest and vassal and taking apart illegitimacy symptom of lawmaker were not only a intention trend in the article but also a value assume and an origin that Marx overturned classic liberalism later and made for the true historic depth and realistic mother earth. Also in this paper also Marx unannotated“material benefit to express an opinion on the difficult”details were explained in detail, to Lenin’s“change”to do the dialectical analysis, and from ontology, methodology and value theory of triple perspective to identify the text meaning.

law justice; politics; act of steal wood ; Marx

Research into Social Management Thoughts of Marx and Engels

SHEN Jie

(School of Marxism,Hohai University,Nanjing 210098,China)

Abstract: Marx and Engels ’ criticism of capitalist social management and the summary of the proletarian revolutionary practice , in particular the experience of the Paris Commune, contains many theories on social management. Social management showing the dual nature of class and social has the dual functions of the political domination and the social administration. With the means of production being transformed from the private possession into the socially owned, the social management converted from the class nature into service ultimately. Social management in the future is the concrete practice reflecting people’s principal status and focusing on the people’s livelihood-oriented ,and also is the democratic management which requires the participation of all members, pursuits the equity and justice and the social governance This democratic administration needs political, economic, ideological and institutional conditions, and also needs to be run through a systematic public powers in response to the demands of the public interest.Marx and Engels ’ thoughts has important implications for social management innovation and the national and social governance in our country’s modernization .

Keywords: Marx and Engels; social management; social governance, democracy and people’s livelihood

On Knowledge Production of Ideological and Political Education

YE Fangxing

(School of Marxism,Fudan University, Shanghai200433,China)

Abstract: The main point for discipline construction ,theoretical and practical innovation of Ideological and Political Education lies in the knowledge production.Knowledge production is the important indicators of the scientific ideological and political education ,the basis of theoretical innovation, and improve the ideological and political education.Knowledge of ideological and political education with scientific concept, category, principle, law as the basic elements, such as in principle and method of ideological and political education as the basic form. On the ideological and political education particularity of cognition and grasp of knowledge, help to reveal the ideological and political education characteristic and mechanism of knowledge production. The value of ideological and political education knowledge production to political guidance as the guidance, to pay attention to the reality of social problems, in state financing, organization and system guarantee, the complete analysis of the problems with the crack. Ideological and political education knowledge to produce polymer effect need to focus on building and developing academic community ideological and political education, focusing on strengthening the ideological and political education academic research team construction, cultivate the ideological and political education academic culture, ideological and political education to promote academic exchanges and strengthen ideological and political education academic ethics and system construction. Key words: the knowledge of ideological and political education; knowledge production; scientific research; The academic community

Strategy and Justification of Famers’ Resistance in China: Two dimensional analysis of Rightful Resistance Theory

XIAO Tangbiao

(Research Center of Public Affairs and Local Governance, Nanjing University,Nanjing 210093,China)

Abstract: In recent years, “rightful resistance” is the most competitive theory and received widely response and approval in the study on contentious politics in China. This paper shows that “Rightful resistance” is more struggle justification than struggle strategy. As performance and tactics of contentious, the concept of “rightful resistance” has an inner conflict, because it not only may be non-violence, but also violent, it not only may be legal, but also between legal and illegal, not necessarily true legitimate. This strategic struggle fall in between legal and illegal boundaries is hard to say that it is the truly rightful resistance. As legitimate justification of contentious, the concept of “rightful resistance” is very appropriate to highlight the current national laws, policies and ideologies gives the legitimacy of public protest, and show the contrast in the actual operation and implementation. For these “l(fā)aw”, no matter whether the trust or not, all protesters take it as a justification of the struggle. Because the concept of rights as a universal value and ethical demand is to be self-evident in the western society, western social movement theory neglect the legitimate justification of contentious have a rightful reason. In today’s China, however, when people need make great efforts to justification them contentious action in social context, our theoretical research no reason not to focus on the deeper problems that include ethical and moral element.Key words: rightful resistance; struggle strategy; struggle justification; political legitimacy; contentious politics

Income Disparity between Urban Residents and Descendants of Migrant Workers: An Analysis Based on Improved Oaxaca-Blinder Decomposition Method

WAND Yijie,et al

(Department of Sociology, Hohai University, Nanjing 211100,China)

Abstract: The majority of current studies about descendants of rural migrants focus on school education, but few concern the labor market. Base on the sample survey data from Nanjing, this paper finds that, the social and economic status of descendants of rural migrants is higher than those without migration experience, but lower than urban residents. With the improved Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition, this paper explores how the income differentials are influenced by human capital, social capital and household registration discrimination. The result shows that human capital is the most important factor. Household registration discrimination and social capital are also important for the differentials.

Keywords: descendant of rural migrants workers; income differentials; household registration discrimination; human capital; social capita

Impact of Human Capital, Political Capital, Social Capital on Income Inequality

HE Zhaiping

(Department of applied sociology, School of politics and administration, Tianjin Normal university, Tianjing 300387, China)

Abstract: On the basis of CGSS2006 data,using Regression-based inequality decomposition technique, the paper compares the contribution of human capital, political capital and social capital on the income inequality of Chinese urban residents between the eastern and midwest. The total impact of human capital on inequality of china has slight difference. In which the level of education in the eastern affects income greater than midwestern. experienc is the opposite. Impact of social capital of midwestern urban resident on inequality , by contrast, is more than the eastern, but the impact of political capital on income inequality is greater than in the eastern. Refuting market monism of income inequality, this paper considers that the role of the market and the state all have impact on income inequality.

Keywords: human capital; political capital; social capital; income inequality; regression decomposition technique

The Vortex of Reproduction in School Education: Research into Education of Migrant Workers’ Children

SHI Qiuxia,et al

(Law and Politics School ,Jiangsu Normal University,Xuzhou 221116,China)

Abstract: Reviewing and combing the relationship between education and social inequality, this paper analyzes the education mechanism of class reproduction, and gives further explanation about this mechanism for the education process of a designated public school named “fly” to recruit migrant workers’ children. Research shows that there are many reproduction vortexes in school education that make intomigrant workers’ children has three characteristics:low learning ability, low education expectation and low Labor market competitiveness, and make this children have the risk of copy their Parents’ life path. Vortexes contain a deep understanding of class reproduction. On the one hand, school education influenced by education and social structure and has its own operating logic is very important on a class reproduction chain. On the other hand, Structural factors impact on education,it is through the actors’ understanding of their own living environment and ultimately effect on behavior, and concentrate in schools, teachers and students of all kinds of replication strategy.

Key words: migrant workers’ children; education; reproduction; actor; vortex

Interest Game and Group Power: A Study of Formation Mechanism of Mass Incidents and Solution to Social Conflicts

Hua Jian,et al

(Business School of Hohai Universtiy, Nanjing 211100, China)

Abstract: Mass incidents are the result of game between different interest groups. In the mass incidents, the change of group power especially the people’s strength plays an important role in the evolution course of social conflicts. In this thesis, we use evolutionary game model to illustrate the evolution course of social conflicts depending on the change of group power, and divide it into four stages: incubation, acute, outbreak and recession. The most effective way to deal with mass incidents is to try to reach a compromise agreement between the people and the local government, which can be realized by active negotiation between the two groups or an intervention of a third party. In addition, in order to prevent the mass incidents, the government should strengthen the information collection system, promptly solve the people’s interest problem, using media to guide, and increase the transparency of the government’s work.Key words: mass incidents; evolutionary game; group power

Rethinking of the Strictest Water Resources Management System

ZUO Qiting

(Center for Water Science Research, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China)

Abstract: To deal with the increasingly serious water resources problems, the strictest water resources management system was proposed by our government, and it has been implemented throughout the country up to now as a new move to intensify water resources management. However, there are some problems concemed. Based on the preliminary studies, some problems discussed and thought in the preliminary times were presented, some related issues were further rethought, and some thinkings for several major issues of the strictest water resources management system were stated, including the concept of the strictest water resources management system, the relationship with river harnessing of human-water harmony, the relations with ecological civilization construction, the relations with deepening of water conservancy reform, key issues for system implementation and evaluation, theory system problems, support system issues, et al. It can provide a reference for further scientific understanding and improving the implementation of the strictest water management system.Key words: the strictest water resources management system; water resources management; integrated water resources management; theory system; core system.

Research into Dilemmas and Countermeasures of Functional Transformation of Government in the Process of the Strictest Water Resource Management

WANG Huiming,et al

(State Key Laboratory of Hydrology-Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering,Hohai University,Nanjing 210098, China)

Abstract: It is of great significance for Chinese government to transform its functions to effectively implement the system reform of water resource management, because governmental functions and behaviors are shown in the holistic process of the strictest water resource management. Then, the establishment of water market system and the implementation of the strictest water resource management are available. According to the six dilemmas pertaining to the transformation of governmental functions, the paper proposes the countermeasures to promote the smooth transformation of the governmental functions in the process of the strictest water resource management, namely, system innovation, fostering of water market, participation of multi-subjects and publicity education.

Key words: the strictest water resource management; functional transformation of government; d ̄i ̄l ̄e ̄m ̄ma; countermeasures

Research into the Mode of Governmental Cooperation in Floods Emergency Management

TONG Jinping,et al

(School of Business,Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China)

Abstract: A relatively perfect organizational system of floods emergency management has been established in China. However, no-timely response and procrastination still exist in practical actions of the grassroots organizations. In this paper, evolutionary game (EG) theory is applied to floods emergency management, and to research the modality for intergovernmental cooperation from the vertical governmental relationship and the horizontal governmental relationship. Game models are founded respectively and a conclusions are inferred based on evolution results that: the superior government in the vertical governmental relationship insists on strengthening supervision is a necessary condition for promoting a positive cooperation between governments in floods emergency management.

Key words: floods; emergency management; intergovernmental cooperation; evolutionary game

Research into Implementation Difficulties in the Process of the Strictest Water Resources Management Based on Internet Information

LIU Gang, et al

(State KeyLaboratory of Hydrology Water Resource and Hydraulic Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China)

Abstract: Based on internet information, the paper analyzes the implementation and policy execution dilemma of the strictest water resources management in China and the relevant issues of the local government.. On the basis of the predicament of the strictest water resources management in the process of implementation and the analysis of the core issue and the conflict concerned, it discusses the deep reasons of the predicament. Finally, from the perspective of dealing with man-water conflict, low efficiency of management, core issues, practical problems and external conditions, the paper systematically proposes the countermeasures on coping with the implementation predicament of the strictest water resources management in China. Key words: the strictest water resources management; internet information; execution dilemma

Research into Regulating Strategies of Water Pricing for Industrial Water Conservation

LI Tailong ,et al

(School of Economics and Management, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China)

10.3876/j.issn.1671-4970.2015.04.014

2014-10-27

國(guó)家社會(huì)科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(12AJY003)

李太龍(1981—),男,山東泰安人,副教授,博士,從事數(shù)量經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和資源經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)研究。

F205

A

1671-4970(2015)04-0082-07

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