開啟語(yǔ)言評(píng)估與測(cè)試的大門
——《探索語(yǔ)言評(píng)估與測(cè)試:行動(dòng)中的語(yǔ)言》評(píng)介

郭凱金檀

(東北大學(xué),沈陽(yáng),110819)

Green, A. 2014.ExploringLanguageAssessmentandTesting:LanguageinAction. London & New York: Routledge.ⅱ+269 pp. ISBN 978-0-415-59723-4.

作者簡(jiǎn)介:郭凱,東北大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院語(yǔ)言測(cè)試研究中心研究助理。主要研究方向?yàn)檎Z(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估。電子郵箱:tokaiguo@gmail.com

金檀,東北大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院英語(yǔ)系副教授、語(yǔ)言測(cè)試研究中心主任。主要研究方向?yàn)檎Z(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估。電子郵箱:alextanjin@gmail.com

*本文受到國(guó)家社科基金重點(diǎn)項(xiàng)目“基于語(yǔ)料庫(kù)的大學(xué)英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言能力標(biāo)準(zhǔn)特征參數(shù)研究”(編號(hào)13AYY005)的資助。

1. 引言

無(wú)論是在大規(guī)模測(cè)試還是在實(shí)際課堂教學(xué)中,語(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估都在檢驗(yàn)學(xué)習(xí)者掌握程度和教師教學(xué)成果中起到重要作用。Anthony Green是目前語(yǔ)言評(píng)估與測(cè)試領(lǐng)域內(nèi)極具影響力的人物之一,他曾在牛津大學(xué)、布魯克斯大學(xué)和北倫敦大學(xué)教授語(yǔ)言評(píng)估課程,目前的研究興趣包括評(píng)估與學(xué)習(xí)之間的關(guān)系和實(shí)際測(cè)試開發(fā)過程等。他于2014年推出的新作《探索語(yǔ)言評(píng)估與測(cè)試:行動(dòng)中的語(yǔ)言》(ExploringLanguageAssessmentandTesting:LanguageinAction)是繼其《語(yǔ)言功能的重新審視》(LanguageFunctionsRevisited,2012)之后,又一部語(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估領(lǐng)域?qū)Ｖ?對(duì)普及語(yǔ)言教師的測(cè)試與評(píng)估素養(yǎng)將產(chǎn)生積極作用,值得國(guó)內(nèi)讀者研讀。

2. 簡(jiǎn)介

近些年來(lái),語(yǔ)言測(cè)試領(lǐng)域中最具代表性的專著教材當(dāng)屬Bachman和Palmer(2010)和Fulcher和Davidson(2007)。前者屬于語(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估領(lǐng)域的偏學(xué)術(shù)型教材,主要面向的讀者群體為博士生和語(yǔ)言測(cè)試研究者,后者則屬于該領(lǐng)域的高級(jí)教程,主要面向的讀者群體為具備一定能力背景知識(shí)的研究生,這兩本專著教材均適合用于具備一定語(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估基礎(chǔ)的讀者來(lái)閱讀和學(xué)習(xí)?！短剿髡Z(yǔ)言評(píng)估與測(cè)試:行動(dòng)中的語(yǔ)言》一書則不同,作為語(yǔ)言測(cè)試領(lǐng)域的基礎(chǔ)性入門讀物,本書的讀者群體主要為該領(lǐng)域的初學(xué)者,可作為語(yǔ)言學(xué)專業(yè)高年級(jí)本科生和研究生的基礎(chǔ)教程。因此,本書采用案例式導(dǎo)入,將基礎(chǔ)性與趣味性相結(jié)合,側(cè)重基礎(chǔ)概念的講解、理論知識(shí)的應(yīng)用以及歷史背景的介紹,作者深入淺出地講解基礎(chǔ)概念,使讀者更容易接受和理解,并使讀者具備一定的實(shí)踐應(yīng)用能力,也增強(qiáng)了讀者對(duì)語(yǔ)言測(cè)試發(fā)展歷史的了解。

全書分為三部分,共七章。第一部分(第1~4章)概述了語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的基本概念、操作目的、制定要求以及具體實(shí)踐。第二部分(第5~6章)從輸入和產(chǎn)出兩方面介紹對(duì)語(yǔ)言技能的評(píng)估。第三部分(第7章)回顧了語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的發(fā)展歷史,并展望了其未來(lái)的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)。這樣的結(jié)構(gòu)框架安排使讀者在掌握基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)的前提下,對(duì)語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的發(fā)展史有所了解,加深了對(duì)語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的理解。

在第1章“認(rèn)清語(yǔ)言評(píng)估本身”中,作者概述了語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的基本概念以及在教育情境中,語(yǔ)言教學(xué)、語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)與語(yǔ)言評(píng)估三者之間的相互依賴關(guān)系。作者認(rèn)為,廣義上的語(yǔ)言評(píng)估是以聽到或讀到的語(yǔ)言片段為證據(jù)來(lái)對(duì)語(yǔ)言產(chǎn)出者進(jìn)行判斷,但本書所探討的語(yǔ)言評(píng)估更加注重語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的掌握與語(yǔ)言能力的運(yùn)用。由此,作者對(duì)語(yǔ)言評(píng)估進(jìn)行了簡(jiǎn)單定義:“通過獲得證據(jù)來(lái)對(duì)一個(gè)人的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)和語(yǔ)言能力進(jìn)行推斷”(Green 2014:5)。其中,語(yǔ)言知識(shí)包括對(duì)外語(yǔ)單詞的識(shí)別、外語(yǔ)句子的翻譯以及語(yǔ)法規(guī)則的了解等,語(yǔ)言能力則更多強(qiáng)調(diào)在實(shí)際生活中對(duì)所學(xué)語(yǔ)言的使用。作者認(rèn)為語(yǔ)言評(píng)估應(yīng)該是對(duì)這兩者的綜合判斷。由于語(yǔ)言教學(xué)、語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)和語(yǔ)言評(píng)估三者是一個(gè)不可分離的整體,教師不僅應(yīng)了解語(yǔ)言評(píng)估是如何制定、評(píng)分和解釋的,還應(yīng)具備獨(dú)立完成這一系列任務(wù)的能力。在語(yǔ)言教學(xué)和學(xué)習(xí)方面,語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的重要性體現(xiàn)在兩個(gè)方面:第一,語(yǔ)言評(píng)估可以為教師提供信息,幫助他們做出正確的決定,以提高教學(xué)質(zhì)量。教師一旦缺少了評(píng)估所提供的反饋信息,或者因評(píng)估不當(dāng)獲得錯(cuò)誤的反饋信息,教學(xué)活動(dòng)和學(xué)習(xí)活動(dòng)便會(huì)受到影響。第二,除了學(xué)習(xí)者自身通過對(duì)教師的模仿來(lái)進(jìn)行語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)以外,教師也可以通過觀察學(xué)習(xí)者的學(xué)習(xí)情況并提供反饋信息來(lái)幫助學(xué)習(xí)者進(jìn)行語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)。

在掌握語(yǔ)言評(píng)估基本概念的基礎(chǔ)上,第2章“語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的目的”闡述了人們對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行評(píng)估的目的,說(shuō)明了語(yǔ)言評(píng)估與評(píng)估結(jié)果實(shí)際應(yīng)用之間的緊密聯(lián)系。研究者們通常通過語(yǔ)言評(píng)估來(lái)收集兩類數(shù)據(jù):一類是與語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)的進(jìn)展程度有關(guān)的數(shù)據(jù);另一類是與語(yǔ)言能力能否滿足具體需要有關(guān)的數(shù)據(jù)。根據(jù)收集數(shù)據(jù)類型,語(yǔ)言評(píng)估目的又可分為兩種,一種用來(lái)檢驗(yàn)學(xué)習(xí)者的學(xué)習(xí)成果和學(xué)習(xí)進(jìn)度;另一種是用來(lái)檢驗(yàn)學(xué)習(xí)者在具體情境中對(duì)所學(xué)語(yǔ)言的應(yīng)用能力。根據(jù)目的的不同,作者將語(yǔ)言評(píng)估分為“教育評(píng)估”與“水平評(píng)估”。教育評(píng)估主要應(yīng)用于課堂教學(xué),評(píng)估內(nèi)容為學(xué)習(xí)者所學(xué)(或?qū)⒁獙W(xué)習(xí)的)知識(shí),主要實(shí)施者為教師。水平評(píng)估通?？疾斓氖菍W(xué)習(xí)者在特定環(huán)境中對(duì)語(yǔ)言的使用能力以及其語(yǔ)言水平能否滿足某種特定需求,比如開展工作、學(xué)習(xí)學(xué)術(shù)課程、出國(guó)旅游及移民等,其主要實(shí)施者是國(guó)家政府部門或者國(guó)際性學(xué)術(shù)組織。在學(xué)習(xí)者的學(xué)習(xí)成果和應(yīng)用能力得到檢驗(yàn)之后,評(píng)估結(jié)果在實(shí)際教學(xué)和學(xué)習(xí)中能夠得到充分運(yùn)用才是評(píng)估另一意義所在。在教學(xué)過程中,教師可以通過評(píng)估來(lái)激勵(lì)學(xué)習(xí)者,通過表?yè)P(yáng)學(xué)習(xí)者的進(jìn)步程度,對(duì)其學(xué)習(xí)成果給予肯定,來(lái)激發(fā)學(xué)習(xí)者的學(xué)習(xí)興趣和熱情。在學(xué)習(xí)者的學(xué)習(xí)過程中,評(píng)估能夠在其不同階段發(fā)揮作用。

第3章“語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的實(shí)踐”主要討論如何提高評(píng)估的有效性,作者建議應(yīng)從“設(shè)計(jì)”(Planning)、“反思”(Reflection)、“提高”(Improvement)、“合作”(Cooperation)以及“證據(jù)”(Evidence)五個(gè)方面加以努力。我們應(yīng)將評(píng)估看做是一個(gè)連續(xù)的、不斷重復(fù)的循環(huán)活動(dòng),由此,作者引入了評(píng)估循環(huán)模型這一概念,它將整個(gè)評(píng)估設(shè)計(jì)的流程分成七個(gè)不同階段,各個(gè)階段之間相互聯(lián)系、相互作用,共同構(gòu)成一個(gè)不可割裂的循環(huán)過程,每個(gè)階段都有不同的執(zhí)行者。第一階段,主要執(zhí)行者為“評(píng)估設(shè)計(jì)師”(Designer),根據(jù)評(píng)估目的列出所要評(píng)估的知識(shí)、能力以及技巧,并設(shè)計(jì)將如何對(duì)此進(jìn)行評(píng)估。第二階段,“制作人”(Producer)擔(dān)任主要角色,根據(jù)設(shè)計(jì)師的設(shè)計(jì)來(lái)制定評(píng)估形式和評(píng)分程序。第三階段,“組織者”(Organiser)決定整個(gè)評(píng)估的控制和管理方式。第四階段,“管理者”(Administrator)根據(jù)前三個(gè)階段制定的設(shè)計(jì)方案和指導(dǎo)方針來(lái)執(zhí)行評(píng)估,并針對(duì)評(píng)估效果進(jìn)行報(bào)告。第五階段,“考生”(Assessee)參與評(píng)估,其表現(xiàn)被記錄在案。第六階段,“評(píng)分者”(Scorer)將考生表現(xiàn)與評(píng)分工具對(duì)比,對(duì)考生表現(xiàn)進(jìn)行打分工作。第七階段,“使用者”(User)將考生得分作為決策基礎(chǔ)進(jìn)行決策。到此,一個(gè)完整的評(píng)估流程得以完成。各環(huán)節(jié)作為整體的有機(jī)部分,任何一個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)的失誤都會(huì)影響其他環(huán)節(jié)的發(fā)展,只有保證每個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)的有效性,才能實(shí)現(xiàn)整個(gè)評(píng)估系統(tǒng)的有效性。

第4章“有效評(píng)估系統(tǒng)的特質(zhì)”描述了有用的評(píng)估應(yīng)具備的品質(zhì)和特點(diǎn),這四個(gè)基本特質(zhì)是“可行性”(Practicality)、“可靠性”(Reliability)、“有效性”(Validity)以及“積極后效”(Beneficial Consequences)。(1)可行性是指開展評(píng)估所需資源與現(xiàn)有資源之間的差距(Bachman & Palmer 2010),這里的資源主要包括時(shí)間、工具、資金以及專業(yè)知識(shí)等,兩者之間的差距越小,評(píng)估的可行性越大,越容易實(shí)現(xiàn);反之,則越小,越難實(shí)現(xiàn)。可行性是所有評(píng)估實(shí)施的最基本要求,如果沒有足夠的資源,任何評(píng)估都將無(wú)法開展。(2)可靠性是指評(píng)估結(jié)果是否有用、可信、站得住腳。語(yǔ)言能力是一個(gè)不穩(wěn)定的、不確定的概念,在不同環(huán)境下,我們很難將人們的語(yǔ)言能力進(jìn)行對(duì)比,于是,應(yīng)該根據(jù)使用語(yǔ)言的社會(huì)目的的差異將語(yǔ)言能力分類進(jìn)行評(píng)判。同時(shí),評(píng)判過程中也不可避免地會(huì)存在大量不確定因素或測(cè)量誤差,因此,要求我們從測(cè)量工具、具體情況、不同考生等多個(gè)方面來(lái)減小誤差,從而保證評(píng)估的可靠性。(3)有效性是指評(píng)估結(jié)果對(duì)評(píng)估目的的反饋程度以及理論和實(shí)踐證據(jù)對(duì)評(píng)估結(jié)果的支持程度,它經(jīng)常被認(rèn)為是好的評(píng)估的必要條件。好的評(píng)估應(yīng)該實(shí)現(xiàn)最初的評(píng)估目的,達(dá)到理想的評(píng)估效果。(4)積極后效指的是評(píng)估對(duì)所評(píng)估的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)、語(yǔ)言能力和語(yǔ)言技巧本身的影響,對(duì)評(píng)估所涉及的個(gè)人的影響,甚至是對(duì)整個(gè)社會(huì)的影響。一個(gè)真正有用的評(píng)估對(duì)每個(gè)所涉及的個(gè)人甚至是整個(gè)社會(huì)群體的有利影響應(yīng)大于不利影響。任何一個(gè)評(píng)估都不能夠完全滿足可行性、可靠性、有效性和積極后效這四個(gè)重要特征,但可通過優(yōu)化與合理使用所有資源來(lái)達(dá)到最佳評(píng)估效果。

第5章“輸入性技能的評(píng)估”主要探討對(duì)“輸入性技能”(Receptive Skills)的評(píng)估與測(cè)試,這里的輸入性技能是指學(xué)習(xí)者的閱讀技能和聽力技能。對(duì)這兩種能力進(jìn)行評(píng)估的目的是為了考察學(xué)習(xí)者應(yīng)用其語(yǔ)言能力對(duì)文字和口頭輸入內(nèi)容的理解水平,這些輸入內(nèi)容常常為考生在語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)過程中或日常生活中會(huì)遇到的問題和內(nèi)容。通過對(duì)考生輸入性技能的評(píng)估,評(píng)估使用者可以了解學(xué)習(xí)者在學(xué)習(xí)外語(yǔ)過程中在讀和聽兩方面所面臨的主要困難,并幫助他們采取措施,進(jìn)行解決。作者提出,無(wú)論是在大規(guī)模的語(yǔ)言測(cè)試還是在課堂教學(xué)評(píng)估中,評(píng)估設(shè)計(jì)者首先應(yīng)該明確的是所要評(píng)估的閱讀能力和聽力能力,有目的的展開評(píng)估工作。在本章中,作者分別介紹了閱讀和聽力的種類和過程,以及如何選擇合適的輸入內(nèi)容來(lái)對(duì)學(xué)習(xí)者的輸入性技能進(jìn)行評(píng)估。然而,應(yīng)當(dāng)指出,學(xué)習(xí)者的理解技能是不能夠被直接觀察的,僅僅通過看別人讀一段文章或聽一段新聞,我們很難了解其對(duì)輸入內(nèi)容的理解程度。因此,評(píng)估設(shè)計(jì)者只能通過設(shè)計(jì)其他評(píng)估方式來(lái)找到評(píng)估學(xué)習(xí)者輸入性技能的證據(jù),這可能包括讓學(xué)習(xí)者根據(jù)指令來(lái)說(shuō)或?qū)憽?/p>

第6章“輸出性技能的評(píng)估”與第5章對(duì)應(yīng),主要探討對(duì)“輸出性技能”(Productive Skills)的評(píng)估與測(cè)試,這里的輸出性技能是指學(xué)習(xí)者的口語(yǔ)技能和寫作技能。在積累了一定的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)、具備了一定的語(yǔ)言技能之后,學(xué)習(xí)者需要利用所學(xué)語(yǔ)言來(lái)傳達(dá)個(gè)人思想,輸出所要表達(dá)的內(nèi)容,這時(shí),學(xué)習(xí)者的說(shuō)和寫的技能則更為重要。在語(yǔ)言的輸出過程中,說(shuō)話的人或?qū)懽鞯娜诵枰獙⑾胍磉_(dá)的信息內(nèi)容通過具體形式表現(xiàn)出來(lái),然而,其信息內(nèi)容對(duì)聽者或讀者來(lái)說(shuō)是未知信息,因此,說(shuō)話的人或?qū)懽鞯娜司托枰诰邆湟欢ǖ恼Z(yǔ)法、詞匯、語(yǔ)篇以及音韻知識(shí)的基礎(chǔ)上,按照一定的目標(biāo)設(shè)定、交流策略將想要傳達(dá)的信息內(nèi)容清楚表達(dá)出來(lái),使聽者或讀者明白其表達(dá)用意。因此,學(xué)習(xí)者的輸出性技能直接影響其思想的傳達(dá)。對(duì)輸出性技能進(jìn)行評(píng)估的目的是了解學(xué)習(xí)者是否具備完成現(xiàn)實(shí)任務(wù)的能力,如寫一篇技術(shù)報(bào)告、做一次有效果的演講等。

本書的第一部分和第二部分向讀者介紹了語(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估的基本概念和兩種技能評(píng)估的實(shí)際操作,使讀者大致了解語(yǔ)言評(píng)估基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)和相關(guān)應(yīng)用,在第三部分,即第7章“語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的發(fā)展”中,作者進(jìn)一步向讀者介紹語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的發(fā)展歷史及發(fā)展脈絡(luò),并分析其未來(lái)發(fā)展趨勢(shì),并分析了語(yǔ)言評(píng)估發(fā)展不同時(shí)期激烈爭(zhēng)論的話題。具體來(lái)說(shuō),作者將歷史追溯到大約五十年前在華盛頓召開的學(xué)術(shù)會(huì)議,主要介紹近五十年來(lái)測(cè)試領(lǐng)域的發(fā)展、語(yǔ)言教育目標(biāo)的變化、評(píng)估與教學(xué)間的關(guān)系、語(yǔ)言熟練度的本質(zhì)以及技術(shù)性改變等問題,其中涵蓋了綜合性測(cè)試的出現(xiàn)、分?jǐn)?shù)解釋方法的發(fā)展、語(yǔ)言交流能力的評(píng)估以及語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的道德影響等多方面內(nèi)容,并在最后部分展望了語(yǔ)言評(píng)估未來(lái)的發(fā)展,為讀者開辟了一條深入研究和探索語(yǔ)言評(píng)估之路。

3. 簡(jiǎn)評(píng)

正如本書前言中所說(shuō),本書為應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)方向的本科生與研究生而設(shè)計(jì),目的是為他們開啟應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)領(lǐng)域的大門,使其對(duì)語(yǔ)言評(píng)估與測(cè)試擁有初步了解。作者在書中通過列舉具體實(shí)例來(lái)闡述基本概念問題,使讀者在了解概念的基礎(chǔ)上,能夠在模擬實(shí)踐中加以應(yīng)用。通覽全書,作者確實(shí)達(dá)到了預(yù)期的寫作目的。作為一本語(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估領(lǐng)域的基礎(chǔ)性讀物,本書具有問題驅(qū)動(dòng)式設(shè)計(jì)、案例結(jié)合式講授以及任務(wù)實(shí)踐式應(yīng)用等諸多特點(diǎn):

第一,問題驅(qū)動(dòng)式設(shè)計(jì)。作為一本語(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估領(lǐng)域的基礎(chǔ)性讀物,在結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)上,本書將基礎(chǔ)性與趣味性相結(jié)合。例如,在本書的第一章中,作者首先為讀者提出幾個(gè)反思問題,引起讀者關(guān)于本章節(jié)內(nèi)容的思考,將讀者的自身經(jīng)歷與理論知識(shí)相結(jié)合,使讀者能夠通過對(duì)實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)的思考,帶著問題在接下來(lái)的內(nèi)容中尋找答案,這種問題式驅(qū)動(dòng)設(shè)計(jì)能夠很好地達(dá)到激發(fā)讀者閱讀興趣的目的。

第二,案例結(jié)合式講授。在介紹具體理論知識(shí)之前,作者會(huì)列舉實(shí)際生活中的具體事例,使讀者擁有一個(gè)熟悉的情境,在這個(gè)情境中,作者通過類比來(lái)講解理論知識(shí),使讀者明白如何評(píng)價(jià)語(yǔ)言評(píng)估的質(zhì)量,這種基礎(chǔ)概念講解與現(xiàn)實(shí)案例相結(jié)合的講授方式更易于讀者的理解和掌握。除此之外,作者在語(yǔ)言使用方面多采用通俗易懂的詞匯,在內(nèi)容講解時(shí)多采用圖文并茂的方式,以幫助讀者的思考和理解。

第三,任務(wù)實(shí)踐式應(yīng)用。本書在理論知識(shí)講解的基礎(chǔ)上,更多強(qiáng)調(diào)理論與實(shí)踐相結(jié)合,培養(yǎng)讀者將理論知識(shí)應(yīng)用到具體實(shí)踐情境中的能力,為此,作者在每部分的講解中根據(jù)所講解的理論知識(shí)為讀者提出了相應(yīng)的讀者任務(wù)。例如,在本書的第三章中,作者在講解評(píng)估循環(huán)模型概念時(shí),為讀者提出了設(shè)計(jì)評(píng)估流程、列出主要活動(dòng)和每個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)涉及到的相關(guān)人員的任務(wù),使讀者不局限于對(duì)理論知識(shí)本事的掌握,同時(shí)也能具備實(shí)踐應(yīng)用的能力。

作為語(yǔ)言評(píng)估與測(cè)試領(lǐng)域的基礎(chǔ)性入門讀物,本書也還存在一些不足之處。例如,本書對(duì)網(wǎng)上評(píng)卷(Onscreen Marking)(Coniam 2009)和自動(dòng)評(píng)分(Automated Scoring)(Williamson,Xi & Breyer 2012)等新興信息科學(xué)技術(shù)的介紹略顯不足。

本書內(nèi)容由淺入深,例證豐富多彩,語(yǔ)言通俗易懂,以趣味性和基礎(chǔ)性相結(jié)合的方式向讀者介紹了該領(lǐng)域的發(fā)展歷史和基礎(chǔ)知識(shí),為語(yǔ)言測(cè)試與評(píng)估領(lǐng)域未來(lái)的發(fā)展提供了一定的理論參考,對(duì)其實(shí)踐操作也具有一定的指導(dǎo)意義。對(duì)于該領(lǐng)域的初學(xué)者來(lái)說(shuō),這是一本不可多得的好書。

參考文獻(xiàn)

Bachman, L. F. & A. S. Palmer. 2010.LanguageAssessmentinPractice[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Coniam, D. 2009. A comparison of onscreen and paper-based marking in the Hong Kong pulic examination system [J].EducationalResearchandEvaluation15: 243-63.

Fulcher, G. & F. Davidson. 2007.LanguageTestingandAssessment:AnAdvancedResourceBook[M]. London & New York: Routledge.

Green, A. 2014.ExploringLanguageAssessmentandTesting:LanguageinAction[M]. London & New York: Routledge.

Williamson, D. M., X. Xi & F. J. Breyer. 2012. A framework for evaluation and use of automated scoring [J].EducationalMeasurement:IssuesandPractice31: 2-13.

(責(zé)任編輯玄琰)

Abstracts of Major Papers in This Issue

Transitivity Shifts of Chinese Ascriptive Clauses in Translation, by ZHAO Jing, p. 8

In systemic functional linguistics, Chinese ascriptive clause refers to a kind of relational clause without a verbal phrase. It could be further divided into three types: the one with nominal as predicate, with adjective as predicate, and with subject-predicate phrase as predicate. This paper is mainly concerned with the features of Chinese ascriptive clauses and the transitivity shifts caused during the process of translation, including process type shifts, process deletion, transitivity scale moderation and the employment of metaphorical transitivity expressions. Those shifts are caused by either language structure, or distinctive status of nominals and adjectives in Chinese and English, or the need to optimize discourse. Languages have different ways of construing experience. The transference of experiential function does not guarantee the matching of transitivity types. Translation should conform to the features of construing experience in the target language.

Research Methods of Sound Change: Current Situation and Future Development, by QIU Chun’an, p. 13

The paper deals with the research approaches of sound change in Chinese dialects. The traditional methods are as follows, i.e., descriptive and comparative method, the integration of text-research method and historical-comparative method, lexical diffusion theory, overlapped theory, and historical strata analysis. The article also discusses the future developments of sound change, i.e., equilibrium-punctuation, phonetic typology, geographical linguistics, experimental phonetics, and variation sociolinguistics. The author holds that these methods are complementary to each other.

Evaluative Analysis of Projections in English and Chinese Academic Book Review, by ZHOU Hui & LIU Yongbing, p. 18

Based on an analysis of the use of projections in English and Chinese academic book reviews in Applied Linguistics, this study aims to explore the evaluative meanings in the review discourses from a cross-cultural perspective. The quantitive and textual analyses of the corpus data reveals that compared with English academic book review, there exists a marked difference in a less frequent use of projections in Chinese book reviews, specifically, in the categories of Author’s Acts and Writer’s Stance, and that a reduced interpersonal investment is made in Chinese book reviews with a preference for the experiential meaning potential, in contrast with the evaluative meaning potential. These differences are interpreted in reference to the nature of academic culture, interpersonal relations in the disciplinary community and the authorial voice.

Reflection of Teaching Reform of General Linguistics at Beijing Normal University, by PENG Xuanwei & YU Li, p. 29

Here a general description of the course reform of General Linguistics at Beijing Normal University is reported. First, a three-level course goal, namely, knowledge, skill and ability is introduced. Then, a practical reform scheme is put forward consisting of five aspects: teaching and learning content, methodology, experiential subjects, procedure and assessment, the focus of which lies in a three-subject interactive model with a question-oriented route: teacher, assistant and student. Finally, objective descriptions from students’ responses are presented. Remaining issues are also laid out for further thinking.

A Study of Chinese Relatives Produced by L2 Learners:A Typological Perspective, by LI Jinman, p. 34

As shown by typological observations, Chinese relative clause (RC) is prenominal, which is typologically rare in Verb-Object languages. Thus Chinese RC might be a difficult structure to acquire for learners whose first language does not have this type of word order. Based on a comparative corpus analysis of Chinese RCs produced by English, Japanese, and Korean learners, this study investigated the commonalities and differences between the distributions of Chinese RCs produced by the three groups of learners. The learner corpus data show that the distributional patterns of Chinese RCs produced by these second language learners, regardless of their first language, conform in varying degrees to typological generalizations derived from natural language observations as well as some minor disparities.

Uncovering Phrase Teaching Design via Meta-linguistic Sequences in English Textbooks: A Co-selection Perspective, by LIANG Hongmei, p. 40

The present paper, within the framework of co-selection theory, sets out to uncover features of phrase teaching design in three phrase-centered English textbooks by analyzing the meta-linguistic sequences in the textbooks. By applying the working model of extended units of meaning to analyzing the co-text of the “word” type words, the study works out the meaningful patterns of the meta-linguistic sequences in the textbooks which either highlight the four aspects of phrase knowledge or represent the two levels of cognitive demands on phrase exercises. Significance of the present research lies in the fact that the descriptive mechanism of co-selection analysis manifests itself as a powerful way to uncover features of a specific pedagogic approach embedded in English textbooks by retrieving recurrent patterns of meta-linguistic sequences.

A Study of China’s MTI Learner Translator Corpus Construction and Research, by ZHOU Qinqin, p. 56

This paper, resting on the systematic review and evaluation of corpus-based translation studies at home and abroad in the past two decades, sets out to propose that China’s MTI Learner Translator Corpus Construction be a strategic option that serves MTI translation pedagogy and the training of translation talents. This study puts forwards some prospect for the linguistic as well as translation research, and elaborates on the research approaches and methodology employed in this study, with a view of expanding the scope of translation studies and generating the paradigm of interdisciplinarity.

An Integrated Approach to Text-oriented Translation and Translation Teaching, by FENG Quangong, p. 63

Text-oriented translation requires that text should be treated as an organic whole and that a translator should follow the wholeness and harmony principles with great textual awareness when translating a text. Translation teaching should also be text-oriented or take a relatively independent text as the unit of teaching, and analyze the translation from a larger perspective. Relevant theoretical resources should be integrated into text-oriented translation teaching, such as rhetoric, writing, translation techniques and theories, contrast and comparison between English and Chinese languages, so that the students’ translation competence will be improved and their understanding of translation will be deepened.

Reconstructed Classics: Compensating Translation ofAhQZhengZhuan’s Style, by CUI Yanqiu, p. 68

Among the five translations of Lu Xun’sAhQZhengZhuan, Mr. and Mrs. Yang Xianyi’s version is widely acknowledged; William A. Lyell’s version is characterized by detailed notes and explanatory translation with a clear purpose of cultural dissemination; while Julia Lovell’s translation published in 2009 is recommended as “the most accessible” byTIMEmagazine. The translators, in different times, with different cultural identity and purposes of translation, convey the fiction’s style differently in register, temporal and spatial traits, narration, ways of humor and irony. Comparing with the Yangs’ faithful translation, Lyell and Lovell make creative attempts in representing Lu Xun’s style, some of which are successful. With the aim of Chinese literature going global, target readers’ reception and cultural dissemination should be important factors in translation criticism.