張華 魏曉平
摘要 從環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放影響這一基本問題出發(fā),針對(duì)可能發(fā)生的綠色悖論與倒逼減排兩種結(jié)果進(jìn)行理論闡釋,認(rèn)為環(huán)境規(guī)制不僅會(huì)對(duì)碳排放產(chǎn)生直接影響,而且會(huì)通過能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)、產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)、技術(shù)創(chuàng)新和FDI四條傳導(dǎo)渠道間接影響碳排放。在此基礎(chǔ)上,本文利用2000-2011年中國省級(jí)面板數(shù)據(jù),采用兩步GMM法實(shí)證分析了環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放影響的雙重效應(yīng)。具體而言,通過引入環(huán)境規(guī)制的平方項(xiàng)考察環(huán)境規(guī)制與碳排放之間非線性的直接關(guān)系,并且構(gòu)造環(huán)境規(guī)制與能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)、產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)、技術(shù)創(chuàng)新和FDI的交叉項(xiàng)探求環(huán)境規(guī)制影響碳排放的間接效應(yīng)。研究結(jié)果表明:環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的直接影響軌跡呈倒U型曲線,隨著環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度由弱變強(qiáng),影響效應(yīng)由“綠色悖論”效應(yīng)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)椤暗贡茰p排”效應(yīng)。就中國的實(shí)際情況而言,現(xiàn)階段環(huán)境規(guī)制有效遏制碳排放,達(dá)到預(yù)期效果。無論是否具有環(huán)境規(guī)制約束,能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)均是顯著增加碳排放的重要誘因,蘊(yùn)含環(huán)境規(guī)制尚未低碳化能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)。環(huán)境規(guī)制倒逼產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)高級(jí)化和刺激技術(shù)創(chuàng)新,扭轉(zhuǎn)了產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)和技術(shù)創(chuàng)新對(duì)碳排放的作用方向。令人遺憾的是,環(huán)境規(guī)制同時(shí)抑制了FDI的環(huán)境溢出效應(yīng)和資本累積效應(yīng)以及削弱本國企業(yè)的技術(shù)吸收能力,致使FDI表現(xiàn)為“污染避難所”效應(yīng)。因此,政府應(yīng)該適度加強(qiáng)環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度和合理選擇環(huán)境規(guī)制工具,使得倒U型曲線的下降階段更加顯著與持久。同時(shí),改革能源價(jià)格、提高環(huán)保技術(shù)以及優(yōu)化FDI的引資和用資策略,從而充分發(fā)揮環(huán)境規(guī)制的碳減排效應(yīng)。
關(guān)鍵詞 綠色悖論;環(huán)境規(guī)制;碳排放;雙重效應(yīng)
中圖分類號(hào) F061 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼 A 文章編號(hào) 1002-2104(2014)09-0021-09
面臨日益嚴(yán)峻的環(huán)境污染和氣候變化問題,中國提出建設(shè)“美麗中國”的目標(biāo),把生態(tài)文明建設(shè)融入經(jīng)濟(jì)、政治、文化和社會(huì)建設(shè),形成“五位一體”的總體布局。同時(shí),“十二五”規(guī)劃明確指出到2015年單位國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值CO2排放降低17%的氣候變化約束性指標(biāo)。如期實(shí)現(xiàn)上述目標(biāo)很大程度上依賴于政府一系列合理的環(huán)境政策。原因在于碳排放行為是生產(chǎn)和消費(fèi)過程中的一種外部性行為,市場機(jī)制在決定碳排放行為方面是失靈的,需要環(huán)境規(guī)制的補(bǔ)充限制。然而,一些學(xué)者卻對(duì)環(huán)境規(guī)制的必要性和有效性提出質(zhì)疑。Schou[1]主張環(huán)境政策是多余的,因?yàn)殡S著自然資源的不斷消耗,污染排放會(huì)自動(dòng)趨于減少。特別是自Sinn[2]開創(chuàng)性地提出“綠色悖論”(Green Paradox)以來,對(duì)環(huán)境規(guī)制限制碳排放有效性的質(zhì)疑聲也一直不絕于耳。如此,便引發(fā)一個(gè)充滿爭議且有趣的議題:環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響是正向的倒逼減排效應(yīng)?抑或負(fù)向的綠色悖論效應(yīng)?顯然,準(zhǔn)確回答上述問題既要考慮環(huán)境規(guī)制影響碳排放的直接效應(yīng),也需考慮間接效應(yīng)。究其根源,驅(qū)動(dòng)碳排放的因素眾多,而在環(huán)境規(guī)制約束下,這些因素對(duì)碳排放的作用方向和強(qiáng)度都可能發(fā)生變化,從而間接反映環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響。從而引發(fā)另一個(gè)問題:環(huán)境規(guī)制會(huì)通過其他傳導(dǎo)渠道間接影響碳排放嗎?厘清以上問題,對(duì)于有效規(guī)避環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的綠色悖論效應(yīng)而充分發(fā)揮其倒逼減排效應(yīng)具有重要的現(xiàn)實(shí)參考意義。
1 文獻(xiàn)綜述
Sinn[2]創(chuàng)造了“綠色悖論”的概念,將其定義為:旨在限制氣候變化的政策措施的執(zhí)行卻導(dǎo)致化石能源加速開采的現(xiàn)象,進(jìn)而加速累積大氣中的溫室氣體,釀成環(huán)境惡化的后果, 意味著“好的意圖不總是引起好的行為”。Sinn進(jìn)一步總結(jié)導(dǎo)致“綠色悖論”的三種可能機(jī)制:①不正確地設(shè)置碳稅;②減少化石能源需求的政策手段;③政策宣告和執(zhí)行之間存在時(shí)滯。自此以后,涌現(xiàn)大量關(guān)于不完美碳排放治理政策對(duì)全球排放影響的理論文獻(xiàn)。主要關(guān)注的議題包括:“綠色悖論”是否存在;“綠色悖論”的作用機(jī)理。由于“綠色悖論”效應(yīng)太過駭人聽聞,對(duì)其是否存在的爭議甚囂塵上,理論推導(dǎo)結(jié)論也莫衷一是,經(jīng)典的文獻(xiàn)有van der Ploeg和Withagen[3]。相形之下,引發(fā)綠色悖論的作用機(jī)制的文獻(xiàn)[4-5]一致同意Sinn的觀點(diǎn),強(qiáng)調(diào)供給側(cè)對(duì)環(huán)境規(guī)制的響應(yīng)使得能源所有者向前移動(dòng)開采路徑,加快能源耗竭,導(dǎo)致碳排放的上升。在此基礎(chǔ)上,Van der Werf和Di Maria[6]將綠色悖論效應(yīng)分為兩種版本:弱版和強(qiáng)版。弱版強(qiáng)調(diào)不完美的氣候政策增加短期碳排放,相反,強(qiáng)版著重于增加氣候變化未來損失的凈現(xiàn)值。
相比于“綠色悖論”的文獻(xiàn)均來源于理論研究領(lǐng)域,更多的實(shí)證文獻(xiàn)探討了碳排放的各種驅(qū)動(dòng)因素。研究方法主要分為LMDI法和STIRPAT模型,絕大部分聚焦于人口規(guī)模、人均財(cái)富、技術(shù)水平和經(jīng)濟(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)等因素對(duì)碳排放的影響,而環(huán)境規(guī)制扮演的角色則少有問津。何小鋼和張耀輝[7]引入時(shí)間趨勢變量以捕捉國家持續(xù)的宏觀政策效應(yīng),表明政府節(jié)能減排政策顯著地遏制碳排放量和碳排放強(qiáng)度。許廣月[8]將環(huán)境規(guī)制設(shè)置成虛擬變量,發(fā)現(xiàn)政府的宏觀政策顯著驅(qū)動(dòng)碳排放量,并沒有達(dá)到預(yù)期的目的。相似地,邵帥等[9]將節(jié)能減排政策設(shè)置為虛擬變量,而結(jié)論強(qiáng)烈支持政府政策的“節(jié)能減排”效應(yīng)??梢园l(fā)現(xiàn),上述文獻(xiàn)均采用虛擬變量以捕捉環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)于碳排放的效應(yīng),并沒有使用具體指標(biāo)刻畫環(huán)境規(guī)制。一個(gè)值得注意的例外是彭星等[10],他們采用單位工業(yè)產(chǎn)值的工業(yè)污染治理投資額作為環(huán)境規(guī)制的代理變量,并消除各省份工業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)的差異,證實(shí)環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度的碳減排效應(yīng)并不顯著。
綜合上述文獻(xiàn),不難看出,環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響均被邊緣化,結(jié)論也是五花八門,學(xué)者們并不重點(diǎn)關(guān)注環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響的強(qiáng)度和方向,并且對(duì)“環(huán)境規(guī)制”指標(biāo)的刻畫缺乏科學(xué)性和全面性。鑒于此,本文擬在以下幾個(gè)方面有所推進(jìn):第一,將LMDI法和STIRPAT模型相結(jié)合,將碳排放的影響因素分解為經(jīng)濟(jì)增長、人口規(guī)模、能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)、產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)、技術(shù)水平,并加入人均GDP的平方項(xiàng)以考察碳排放庫茲涅茨曲線的存在性;第二,從環(huán)境規(guī)制實(shí)施的成本和實(shí)施后的收益兩方面構(gòu)造環(huán)境規(guī)制指標(biāo),并納入影響碳排放的模型中,重點(diǎn)考察其對(duì)碳排放的影響;第三,慮及環(huán)境規(guī)制通過能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)、產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)、技術(shù)創(chuàng)新和FDI四條傳導(dǎo)渠道而對(duì)碳排放產(chǎn)生間接影響,構(gòu)造彼此間的交叉項(xiàng)以分析環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的間接影響。
2 環(huán)境規(guī)制影響碳排放的機(jī)理分析
2.1 環(huán)境規(guī)制影響碳排放的直接效應(yīng)
從概念上講,環(huán)境規(guī)制屬于政府社會(huì)性規(guī)制的重要范疇,指由于化石能源不可持續(xù)以及工業(yè)活動(dòng)所造成的污染具有外部不經(jīng)濟(jì)性,政府通過排污許可、行政處罰、征收排污稅等方式對(duì)廠商的生產(chǎn)經(jīng)營活動(dòng)進(jìn)行調(diào)節(jié),以實(shí)現(xiàn)可持續(xù)的環(huán)境和經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展。既有研究中,根據(jù)環(huán)境規(guī)制工具的強(qiáng)制程度可將其分為三類[11]:直接規(guī)制(標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、命令與控制),經(jīng)濟(jì)工具(稅費(fèi)、可交易的排放許可證等)和“軟”手段(資源產(chǎn)業(yè)協(xié)議、環(huán)境認(rèn)證方案等)。因此,一般意義上,政府制定環(huán)境規(guī)制政策的目的在于保護(hù)環(huán)境,預(yù)期中環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的直接效應(yīng)為正向的減排作用。具體地,政府對(duì)化石能源的生產(chǎn)者和使用者征收碳稅、能源稅等,增加他們的生產(chǎn)成本與環(huán)境成本,進(jìn)而減少能源需求,因而有利于減少碳排放?;蛘哐a(bǔ)貼清潔能源,鼓勵(lì)使用替代能源,同樣減少能源需求。顯然,無論是對(duì)化石能源征稅,還是對(duì)清潔能源補(bǔ)貼,都降低化石能源的需求,達(dá)到減排目的。圖1描繪了上述作用機(jī)理。然而,正如Sinn[2]所言,好的意圖不總是引起好的行為。綠色悖論效應(yīng)也可能是環(huán)境規(guī)制作用碳排放的結(jié)果,根源于供給側(cè)的動(dòng)態(tài)反應(yīng)?;茉此姓哳A(yù)期環(huán)境規(guī)制越來越嚴(yán)格,從而在整個(gè)時(shí)間域上向前移動(dòng)開采路徑,導(dǎo)致當(dāng)前化石能源價(jià)格下降。短期內(nèi),更廉價(jià)的化石能源刺激需求上升,隨之而來的是短期碳排放的上升,引發(fā)綠色悖論效應(yīng)。
2.2 環(huán)境規(guī)制影響碳排放的間接效應(yīng)
環(huán)境規(guī)制不僅通過化石能源需求側(cè)和供給側(cè)對(duì)碳排放產(chǎn)生直接影響,而且通過能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)、產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)、技術(shù)創(chuàng)新和FDI四條傳導(dǎo)渠道對(duì)碳排放的間接影響。圖2繪制了環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放影響的間接效應(yīng)。
(1)環(huán)境規(guī)制既可能低碳化能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu),也可能增加高碳能源的比例而發(fā)揮逆反效應(yīng),這一致于環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響。正如上文所述,政府實(shí)施環(huán)境規(guī)制政策意圖保護(hù)環(huán)境,通過施加企業(yè)的環(huán)境治理成本迫使企業(yè)使用更先進(jìn)的節(jié)能減排技術(shù)以及清潔能源,從而降低對(duì)高碳能源的需求,優(yōu)化能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)。然而,供給側(cè)能源所有者對(duì)環(huán)境規(guī)制的反應(yīng)增加高碳能源的使用量。原因在于,越是污染嚴(yán)重的能源,受到環(huán)境規(guī)制的影響越大,預(yù)期未來針對(duì)此類能源的環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度越高,從而加快此類能源的開采。Di Maria等[12]證實(shí)了上述結(jié)論,其運(yùn)用美國1986-1994年煤炭的加權(quán)平均實(shí)際價(jià)格數(shù)據(jù),發(fā)現(xiàn)在1990年實(shí)施《清潔空氣法案修正案》(Clean Air Act Amendments)之后,煤炭價(jià)格顯著下降。
(2)嚴(yán)厲的環(huán)境規(guī)制將顯著抑制污染密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)的增長,而有利于服務(wù)業(yè)的發(fā)展,推動(dòng)產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)高級(jí)化,因此有利于減少碳排放。環(huán)境規(guī)制可以倒逼產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)升級(jí)而間接影響碳排放。有證據(jù)顯示,對(duì)于污染產(chǎn)業(yè),更嚴(yán)厲的環(huán)境規(guī)制會(huì)更有效地阻止資本的進(jìn)入,但在污染程度更低的產(chǎn)業(yè)中,這種作用則并不顯著[13]。顯然,上述結(jié)論符合經(jīng)濟(jì)直覺,原因在于:第一,嚴(yán)厲的環(huán)境規(guī)制使得污染密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)承擔(dān)高昂的“環(huán)境遵循成本”,提升高耗能產(chǎn)業(yè)的生存門檻,出于規(guī)避這一成本的需要,污染密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)向環(huán)境規(guī)制更為寬松的地區(qū)轉(zhuǎn)移;第二,服務(wù)業(yè)是清潔型產(chǎn)業(yè),所受環(huán)境規(guī)制帶來高昂環(huán)境成本的沖擊較小,此外,隨著消費(fèi)者的需求偏好越來越偏向于綠色產(chǎn)品,服務(wù)業(yè)迎來發(fā)展良機(jī),進(jìn)而鞭策產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)向高級(jí)化轉(zhuǎn)變。
(3)環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新的影響既有正向的補(bǔ)償效應(yīng),也有負(fù)向的抵消效應(yīng),從而間接影響碳排放。一方面,正向的補(bǔ)償效應(yīng)被稱為“波特假說”效應(yīng),意為合適的環(huán)境規(guī)制能激發(fā)“創(chuàng)新補(bǔ)償”效應(yīng),從而不僅能彌補(bǔ)企業(yè)的“遵循成本”,還能提高企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)率和競爭力[14],進(jìn)而帶來生產(chǎn)技術(shù)進(jìn)步和環(huán)保技術(shù)升級(jí),有利于減少碳排放。另一方面,“遵循成本”效應(yīng)認(rèn)為環(huán)境規(guī)制提高企業(yè)的污染治理成本,高昂的生產(chǎn)成本擠出企業(yè)的研發(fā)投入資金,降低企業(yè)生產(chǎn)效率,不利于包括環(huán)保技術(shù)在內(nèi)的技術(shù)創(chuàng)新,無益于碳減排和環(huán)境治理的改善。
(4)環(huán)境規(guī)制會(huì)影響FDI的技術(shù)溢出效應(yīng)、吸收能力和資本積累效應(yīng)。同時(shí),F(xiàn)DI對(duì)碳排放的影響也扮演著“天使”與“魔鬼”的雙重角色,既可能是“污染光環(huán)”效應(yīng),也可能是“污染避難所”效應(yīng)。因此,環(huán)境規(guī)制通過FDI而間接影響碳排放?!拔廴竟猸h(huán)”效應(yīng)認(rèn)為在承載先進(jìn)技術(shù)的外資企業(yè)可以向東道國傳播更為綠色清潔的生產(chǎn)技術(shù),提升其生產(chǎn)的環(huán)保水平,從而有利于減少東道國的碳排放。相反,“污染避難所”效應(yīng)認(rèn)為發(fā)達(dá)國家的企業(yè)因面臨苛刻的環(huán)境規(guī)制,往往需要在污染治理和環(huán)境保護(hù)方面投入更多的成本,而發(fā)展中國家相對(duì)寬松的環(huán)境政策或政策執(zhí)行能力的缺失使得它們?cè)谖廴久芗彤a(chǎn)業(yè)具有比較優(yōu)勢,使得發(fā)達(dá)國家將污染密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)轉(zhuǎn)移到發(fā)展中國家,進(jìn)而增加?xùn)|道國的碳排放。在環(huán)境規(guī)制約束下,F(xiàn)DI對(duì)碳排放兩種相左的效應(yīng)受到FDI的技術(shù)溢出效應(yīng)、吸收能力和資本積累效應(yīng)的影響。具體來說,首先,環(huán)境規(guī)制增加外資企業(yè)的生產(chǎn)成本,擠出其研發(fā)投入,不利于先進(jìn)技術(shù)的擴(kuò)散;其次,外資技術(shù)溢出效應(yīng)的發(fā)揮需要內(nèi)資企業(yè)具備較強(qiáng)的學(xué)習(xí)能力和吸收能力,環(huán)境規(guī)制增加了內(nèi)資企業(yè)污染治理的成本,從而削弱其吸收能力;最后,由于環(huán)境規(guī)制影響FDI的投資區(qū)位選擇,因此高強(qiáng)度的環(huán)境規(guī)制阻礙FDI的流入,導(dǎo)致東道國資本存量的下降,不利于降低能源強(qiáng)度和碳排放。
4 實(shí)證結(jié)果
鑒于計(jì)量模型中引入了被解釋變量的一階滯后變量作為解釋變量,從而演變成動(dòng)態(tài)面板模型,本文運(yùn)用差分GMM方法進(jìn)行估計(jì),在分析過程中利用差分轉(zhuǎn)換的方法消除個(gè)體不隨時(shí)間變化的異質(zhì)性。
4.1 環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放影響的直接效應(yīng)分析
表2報(bào)告了環(huán)境規(guī)制影響碳排放直接效應(yīng)的結(jié)果。模型Ⅰ-Ⅲ分別為環(huán)境規(guī)制的一次方、二次方和三次方項(xiàng)與碳排放關(guān)系的估計(jì)結(jié)果。由表2可知,模型Ⅰ-Ⅲ均通過AR檢驗(yàn)和Sargan檢驗(yàn),證明模型的設(shè)置比較合理,估計(jì)結(jié)果值得信賴。
容易看出,模型Ⅰ中環(huán)境規(guī)制的一次方項(xiàng)系數(shù)在10%的水平上顯著為負(fù),說明環(huán)境規(guī)制有效地遏制碳排放,發(fā)揮“倒逼減排”的作用,并沒有出現(xiàn)綠色悖論現(xiàn)象。更進(jìn)一步,模型Ⅱ中環(huán)境規(guī)制的一次方項(xiàng)系數(shù)為正,二次方項(xiàng)系數(shù)在 10%的水平上顯著為負(fù),表明環(huán)境規(guī)制與碳排放之間存在著顯著的倒U型曲線關(guān)系,即環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的直接作用存在一個(gè)閾值,當(dāng)一個(gè)地區(qū)的環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度小于閾值時(shí),環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度的增強(qiáng)促進(jìn)碳排放,發(fā)生綠色悖論現(xiàn)象,呈逆反效應(yīng);當(dāng)環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度大于閾值時(shí),環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的抑制作用占據(jù)上方,達(dá)到環(huán)境規(guī)制的預(yù)期效果。根據(jù)模型Ⅱ的回歸結(jié)果,測算出U型曲線的拐點(diǎn)為9.33,即SO2去除率達(dá)到9.33%,綠色悖論效應(yīng)將過渡到倒逼減排效應(yīng)。根據(jù)表1中的描述性統(tǒng)計(jì)結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn),SO2去除率的平均值為39.19%,遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過閾值,意味著現(xiàn)階段中國的環(huán)境規(guī)制有效抑制碳排放。模型Ⅲ進(jìn)一步引入環(huán)境規(guī)制的三次方項(xiàng),目的在于檢驗(yàn)環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的作用是否出現(xiàn)“重組”現(xiàn)象,即N型或倒N型,結(jié)果表明系數(shù)均不顯著,從而佐證了環(huán)境規(guī)制與碳排放之間倒U型關(guān)系的穩(wěn)健性。此外,前期的碳排放和當(dāng)期的碳排放顯著正相關(guān),表明碳排放是一個(gè)連續(xù)動(dòng)態(tài)累積的調(diào)整過程,這一結(jié)論吻合于李鍇和齊紹洲[18]的工作。
從模型Ⅰ-Ⅲ的回歸結(jié)果來看,人均GDP的一次方項(xiàng)與碳排放顯著正相關(guān),而二次方項(xiàng)與碳排放顯著為負(fù),因此人均GDP與碳排放之間顯示了強(qiáng)烈的倒U型曲線關(guān)系,說明中國省際間存在碳庫茲涅茨曲線。此外,所有模型都表明人口規(guī)模對(duì)碳排放明顯的促進(jìn)作用,人口的快速增長對(duì)資源與環(huán)境的承載力提出嚴(yán)峻挑戰(zhàn),通過增加能源消費(fèi)而增加碳排放。
另外,能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)與碳排放在1%的顯著性水平上正相關(guān),由于煤炭燃燒的碳排放量是石油的1.2倍,天然氣的1.6倍,從而反映了中國“富煤貧油少氣”的能源稟賦現(xiàn)狀,以煤為主的能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)將長期羈絆中國碳減排目標(biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn)。產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)對(duì)碳排放的影響為正,但不顯著,在一定程度上反映重工業(yè)比重的上升促進(jìn)碳排放的增加。以R&D支出衡量的技術(shù)創(chuàng)新水平與碳排放呈正相關(guān)關(guān)系,但不顯著,沒有足夠的證據(jù)表明中國通過研發(fā)以提高能源效率而減少碳排放。其原因可能在于患上“發(fā)展饑渴癥”的中國一味地追求發(fā)展經(jīng)濟(jì),一系列制度安排使得環(huán)境保護(hù)讓位于經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的要求,從而R&D支出更傾向于用于提高資本和勞動(dòng)效率的技術(shù)研發(fā),而忽略了提高環(huán)境保護(hù)技術(shù)和能源效率的投資。FDI對(duì)碳排放的影響為負(fù),這證明了FDI的環(huán)境收益效應(yīng)大于向底線賽跑效應(yīng)。
4.2 環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放影響的間接效應(yīng)分析
表3報(bào)告了環(huán)境規(guī)制影響碳排放間接效應(yīng)的結(jié)果。本文采用逐步添加變量進(jìn)行實(shí)證分析的做法,模型Ⅰ-Ⅳ依次加入環(huán)境規(guī)制與能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)、產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)、技術(shù)創(chuàng)新、FDI的交叉項(xiàng),主要目的在于逐步觀察環(huán)境規(guī)制通過四種途徑間接影響碳排放的情形,以檢驗(yàn)結(jié)果的穩(wěn)健性,估計(jì)模型Ⅰ-Ⅲ的靜態(tài)面板模型的固定效應(yīng)。容易發(fā)現(xiàn),模型Ⅰ-Ⅳ均通過AR檢驗(yàn)和Sargan檢驗(yàn),表明模型能夠有效識(shí)別,工具變量選擇合理。與環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放影響的直接效應(yīng)的分析一致,前期的碳排放對(duì)當(dāng)期的碳排放有顯著的正向驅(qū)動(dòng)作用,人口規(guī)模是驅(qū)動(dòng)碳排放的重要力量,并且存在倒U型的碳庫茲涅茨曲線。
除了模型Ⅰ,模型Ⅱ-Ⅳ中的環(huán)境規(guī)制與能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)交叉項(xiàng)均在1%的水平上顯著為正。我們認(rèn)為在環(huán)境規(guī)制的影響下,以煤為主的能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)是增加碳排放的重要誘因,對(duì)比表1,發(fā)現(xiàn)環(huán)境規(guī)制尚未通過低碳化能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)而遏制碳排放。究其根源:首先,正如上文所述,中國“富煤貧油少氣”的能源稟賦決定了以煤為主的能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu),且短期內(nèi)不會(huì)改變,進(jìn)而約束碳減排目標(biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn);其次,中國政府為了實(shí)現(xiàn)快速的經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展,長期壓制能源價(jià)格,而人為地獲得“資源紅利”, 能源價(jià)格并不能真正地反映能源的稀缺成本和環(huán)境成本;最后,相比于化石能源,清潔能源成本高昂、市場幼小、體制尚不健全,并不具備大規(guī)模應(yīng)用的商業(yè)條件。因此,環(huán)境規(guī)制倒逼能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)低碳化并非一朝一夕之功,而是一個(gè)長期緩慢的過程。
在環(huán)境規(guī)制約束下,驅(qū)動(dòng)碳排放增加的重要力量來源于FDI,比較上文可知,F(xiàn)DI對(duì)碳排放的作用方向發(fā)生逆轉(zhuǎn)。從理論上講,嚴(yán)格的環(huán)境規(guī)制將阻止發(fā)達(dá)國家污染密集型產(chǎn)業(yè)的進(jìn)入,避免東道國成為發(fā)達(dá)國家的“污染避難所”。然而,對(duì)于已經(jīng)進(jìn)入中國的外資企業(yè)而言,提高環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度將增加其生產(chǎn)成本,阻礙FDI的技術(shù)溢出效應(yīng),并且嚴(yán)格的環(huán)境規(guī)制同樣促使本國企業(yè)生產(chǎn)成本上升,削弱了對(duì)外資企業(yè)先進(jìn)技術(shù)的吸納能力。更有甚者,高強(qiáng)度的環(huán)境規(guī)制使得外資企業(yè)紛紛逃離中國市場,從而減少中國的資本存量,拖累經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展,不利于能耗強(qiáng)度的改善??偟膩砜?,環(huán)境規(guī)制通過抑制FDI的環(huán)境溢出效應(yīng)和資本累積效應(yīng)以及削弱本國企業(yè)的技術(shù)吸收能力而間接對(duì)碳減排產(chǎn)生消極影響。
4.3 穩(wěn)健性檢驗(yàn)
本節(jié)使用消除工業(yè)產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)異質(zhì)性的單位工業(yè)產(chǎn)值的工業(yè)污染治理投資額ER2測度環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度,同樣分析了環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放影響的直接效應(yīng)與間接效應(yīng),以對(duì)上文的結(jié)果進(jìn)行穩(wěn)健性檢驗(yàn),回歸結(jié)果見表4。容易看出,環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放影響的直接效應(yīng)顯示出明顯的倒U型。雖然環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放影響的間接效應(yīng)的估計(jì)系數(shù)有所差異,但作用方向均與表3的結(jié)論一致,說明本文的結(jié)論并未發(fā)生實(shí)質(zhì)性變化。此外,省際間存在碳庫茲涅茨曲線的結(jié)論依然穩(wěn)健。
5 結(jié)論與政策啟示
環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響究竟是綠色悖論效應(yīng)還是倒逼減排效應(yīng)?狹義上看,環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響軌跡呈倒U型曲線,拐點(diǎn)之前呈“綠色悖論”效應(yīng),而拐點(diǎn)之后呈“倒逼減排”效應(yīng)。就中國的實(shí)際情況而言,當(dāng)前環(huán)境
規(guī)制有效遏制碳排放,達(dá)到預(yù)期效果。廣義上看,環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響還需要考慮環(huán)境規(guī)制通過能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)、產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)、技術(shù)創(chuàng)新和FDI四條傳導(dǎo)渠道對(duì)碳排放的間接影響。2000-2011年中國省級(jí)面板數(shù)據(jù)的回歸結(jié)果表明,無論是否具有環(huán)境規(guī)制約束,能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)均顯著促進(jìn)碳排放,蘊(yùn)含環(huán)境規(guī)制尚未低碳化能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)。然而,環(huán)境規(guī)制倒逼產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)高級(jí)化和刺激技術(shù)創(chuàng)新,扭轉(zhuǎn)了產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)和技術(shù)創(chuàng)新對(duì)碳排放的作用方向。令人遺憾的是,環(huán)境規(guī)制同時(shí)抑制了FDI的環(huán)境溢出效應(yīng)和資本累積效應(yīng)以及削弱本國企業(yè)的技術(shù)吸收能力,致使FDI表現(xiàn)為“污染避難所”效應(yīng)。總體而言,環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響是綠色悖論效應(yīng)抑或倒逼減排效應(yīng)取決于直接效應(yīng)與間接效應(yīng)的凈效果。因此,為了達(dá)到環(huán)境規(guī)制的預(yù)期效應(yīng)必須有效規(guī)避綠色悖論效應(yīng)的不利影響,充分發(fā)揮環(huán)境規(guī)制的碳減排效應(yīng)。從而,本文的研究結(jié)論蘊(yùn)含著相應(yīng)的政策涵義。
(1)適度加強(qiáng)環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度,合理選擇環(huán)境規(guī)制工具。一方面,由前文可知,現(xiàn)階段的環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度發(fā)揮預(yù)期的“倒逼減排”效應(yīng),但同時(shí)環(huán)境規(guī)制的“波特假說”效應(yīng)尚不明顯。因此,進(jìn)一步適度加強(qiáng)環(huán)境規(guī)制,既有利于碳減排,又有利于環(huán)保技術(shù)的創(chuàng)新。但也要警惕不切實(shí)際、盲目提高環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度的跟風(fēng)行為,以免環(huán)境規(guī)制對(duì)碳排放的影響軌跡出現(xiàn)“重組”現(xiàn)象,即倒N型,再次引發(fā)綠色悖論效應(yīng)。另一方面,充分發(fā)揮環(huán)境規(guī)制的碳減排效應(yīng)還需要選擇合理的環(huán)境規(guī)制工具。環(huán)境標(biāo)準(zhǔn)、排放限額等“控制型”環(huán)境規(guī)制工具由于具有較強(qiáng)的強(qiáng)制性,對(duì)企業(yè)缺乏足夠的激勵(lì);而排污權(quán)交易、環(huán)境補(bǔ)貼等“激勵(lì)型”環(huán)境規(guī)制工具對(duì)企業(yè)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新提供持續(xù)的激勵(lì),有利于提高企業(yè)治污創(chuàng)新能力[19]。所以,政府應(yīng)該根據(jù)地區(qū)間經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展水平和碳排放強(qiáng)度的異質(zhì)性,采取差異化的環(huán)境規(guī)制工具。對(duì)于東部發(fā)達(dá)省份,考慮到人們?nèi)找嬖鲩L的環(huán)境質(zhì)量訴求與綠色產(chǎn)品的需求,宜采用較高水平的環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度,并以“激勵(lì)型”環(huán)境規(guī)制工具為主。對(duì)于中西部欠發(fā)達(dá)省份,不能一味追求經(jīng)濟(jì)增長而忽略環(huán)境質(zhì)量,環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度適中,“激勵(lì)型”與“控制型”環(huán)境規(guī)制工具相結(jié)合,并且對(duì)于生態(tài)環(huán)境更加脆弱的省份,需以“控制型”環(huán)境規(guī)制工具為主。
(2)深化能源價(jià)格改革,“開源”與“節(jié)流”雙管齊下。以煤為主的能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)將長期羈絆中國碳減排目標(biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn),實(shí)現(xiàn)環(huán)境規(guī)制低碳化能源消費(fèi)結(jié)構(gòu)的目標(biāo)必須以改革能源價(jià)格體制為中心,以發(fā)展清潔能源和提高能源效率為兩個(gè)基本點(diǎn)。首先,理順能源價(jià)格機(jī)制,改革成品油定價(jià)機(jī)制、天然氣價(jià)格改革、電力上網(wǎng)競價(jià)、煤電聯(lián)動(dòng)機(jī)制等,通過資源稅和環(huán)境稅等環(huán)境規(guī)制將能源使用的環(huán)境外部成本內(nèi)部化,修正被扭曲的價(jià)格信號(hào)。其次,政府應(yīng)該積極鼓勵(lì)發(fā)展構(gòu)建多樣、安全、清潔、高效的能源供應(yīng)和消費(fèi)體系,推進(jìn)風(fēng)能、太陽能等綠色能源的應(yīng)用和普及[9]。最后,提高能源利用效率,特別是煤炭資源的利用效率,加快清潔煤、煤基多聯(lián)產(chǎn)系統(tǒng)、煤炭地下氣化等技術(shù)的推廣和應(yīng)用,更快實(shí)現(xiàn)節(jié)能、降耗、治污、減碳等多種目標(biāo)。
(3)內(nèi)外并重,切實(shí)提高環(huán)保技術(shù)。實(shí)證結(jié)果表明環(huán)境規(guī)制約束下,技術(shù)創(chuàng)新并未顯著減少碳排放。因此,對(duì)內(nèi)應(yīng)該增加研發(fā)投入和提高研發(fā)強(qiáng)度,因地制宜采取針對(duì)性的激勵(lì)政策創(chuàng)造有利于企業(yè)環(huán)保技術(shù)創(chuàng)新的外部環(huán)境,著力增強(qiáng)自身創(chuàng)新能力;對(duì)外積極引進(jìn)與自身生產(chǎn)力水平、技術(shù)吸收能力相匹配的環(huán)保技術(shù),并對(duì)其反向?qū)W習(xí)和二次開發(fā),充分發(fā)揮后發(fā)優(yōu)勢,實(shí)現(xiàn)從技術(shù)引進(jìn)到技術(shù)模仿再到自主創(chuàng)新的動(dòng)態(tài)演進(jìn)。
(4)優(yōu)化FDI的引資和用資策略,增強(qiáng)FDI的環(huán)境溢出效應(yīng)。一方面,雖然高強(qiáng)度的環(huán)境規(guī)制有可能阻礙外資的流入,但這并不意味著地方政府可以放松環(huán)境規(guī)制,因?yàn)榈蛷?qiáng)度的環(huán)境規(guī)制可能會(huì)吸引一些高耗能高污染型企業(yè),然而也有可能嚇退低耗能和低污染型企業(yè),因此,不能單純?yōu)榱艘Y而放松環(huán)境規(guī)制和忽略外資質(zhì)量,杜絕引進(jìn)低質(zhì)量FDI,避免成為發(fā)達(dá)國家的“污染天堂”。另一方面,加強(qiáng)政府在引資過程中的導(dǎo)向作用,根據(jù)不同地區(qū)的要素稟賦條件制定合適的引資目標(biāo),統(tǒng)籌協(xié)調(diào)不同地區(qū)的引資政策,防止部分地區(qū)在引資過程中存在惡性競爭,導(dǎo)致環(huán)境規(guī)制水平降低,進(jìn)而抑制FDI的環(huán)境溢出效應(yīng)。
(編輯:王愛萍)
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[13]Xing Y Q, Kolstad C D. Do Lax Environmental Regulations Attract Foreign Direct Investment? [J]. Environmental and Resource Economics, 2002, 21(1):1-23.
[14]張成,陸旸,郭陸,等. 環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度和生產(chǎn)技術(shù)進(jìn)步[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)研究,2011,(2):113-124.[Zhang Cheng, Lu Yang, Guo Lu, et al. The Intensity of Environmental Regulation and Technological Progress of Production[J]. Economic Research Journal, 2011, (2):113-124.]
[15]杜立民. 我國二氧化碳排放的影響因素:基于省級(jí)面板數(shù)據(jù)的研究[J].南方經(jīng)濟(jì),2010,(11):20-33.[Du Liming. Impact Factors of Chinas Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Provincial Panel Data Analysis[J]. South China Journal of Economics, 2010, (11):20-33.]
[16]李眺. 環(huán)境規(guī)制、服務(wù)業(yè)發(fā)展與我國的產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)管理,2013,(8):1-10.[Li Tiao. Environmental Regulation, Service Industry Development and Industial Restructuring[J]. Economic Management, 2013, (8):1-10.]
[17]沈能,劉鳳朝. 高強(qiáng)度的環(huán)境規(guī)制真能促進(jìn)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新嗎?:基于“波特假說”的再檢驗(yàn)[J]. 中國軟科學(xué),2012,(4):49-59.[Shen Neng, Liu Fengchao. Can Intensive Environmental Regulation Promote Technological Innovation?:Porter Hypothesis Reexamined[J]. China Soft Science,2012,(4):49-59.]
[18]李鍇,齊紹洲. 貿(mào)易開放、經(jīng)濟(jì)增長與中國二氧化碳排放[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)研究,2011,(11):60-72.[Li Kai, Qi Shaozhou. Trade Openness, Economic Growth and Carbon Dioxide Emission in China[J]. Economic Research Journal, 2011, (11):60-72.]
[19]李玲,陶峰. 中國制造業(yè)最優(yōu)環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度的選擇:基于綠色全要素生產(chǎn)率的視角[J].中國工業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì),2012,(5):70-82.[Li Ling, Tao Feng. Selection of Optimal Environmental Regulation Intensity for Chinese Manufacturing Industry: Based on the Green TFP Perspective[J].China Industrial Economics, 2012, (5):70-82.]
Abstract Focusing on the basic issue how environmental regulation affects carbon emissions and theoretically explaining two possible results about green paradox and forced emissionreduction, we believe that environmental regulation will not only have a direct impact on carbon emissions, but also exert an indirect impact by four transmission channels of the energy consumption structure, industrial structure, technological innovation and FDI. On this basis, we empirically analyze the dual effects of environmental regulation on carbon emissions through Chinas provincial panel data during 2000-2011, with twostep GMM method. Specifically, introducing the square term of environmental regulation, we investigate nonlinear direct relationship between environmental regulation and carbon emissions. Furthermore, we construct cross terms of environmental regulation and energy consumption structure, industrial structure, technological innovation & FDI to explore indirect relationship between environmental regulation and carbon emissions. The results indicate that the direct impact of environmental regulation on carbon emissions manifests inverted Ushaped curve. In other words, with intensity of environmental regulation from weak to strong, ‘green paradox effect will translate into ‘forced emissionreduction effect. In terms of Chinas actual situation, current environmental regulation effectively curb carbon emissions and achieve the desired effect. Energy consumption structure significantly promote carbon emissions, regardless of whether it is constrained by environmental regulation. Upgrading industrial structure and stimulating technological innovation, environmental regulation reverses the direction of industrial structure and technological innovation on carbon emissions. Regrettably, environmental regulation results in FDI performance of the ‘pollution haven effect because of suppressing environmental spillovers effect and capital accumulation of FDI and weakening national enterprise technology absorption capacity. As a result, the government should properly strengthen environmental regulation intensity and select environmental regulation tools, and makes the decline stage of inverted ushaped curve more significant and lasting. Meanwhile, in order to maximize the carbon emissions effects of environmental regulation, the government needs reform energy price, improve the environmental protection technology and optimize the FDI investment and investment strategy.
Key words green paradox; environmental regulation; carbon emissions; dual effect
[10]彭星,李斌,金培振. 文化非正式制度有利于經(jīng)濟(jì)低碳轉(zhuǎn)型嗎?地方政府競爭視角下的門限回歸分析[J].財(cái)經(jīng)研究,2013,(7):110-121.[Peng Xing, Li Bin, Jin Peizhen. Are Informal Culture Institutions Good for Lowcarbon Economic Transformation in China? [J]. Journal of Finance and Economics, 2013, (7): 110-121.]
[11]Testa F, Iraldo F, Frey M. The Effect of Environmental Regulation on Firms Competitive Performance: The Case of the Building & Construction Sector in Some EU Regions[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 2011, 92:2136-2144.
[12]Di Maria C, Lange I, Van der Werf E. Should We Be Worried About the Green Paradox? Announcement Effects of the Acid Rain Program[J/OL]. European Economic Review, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2013.03.010.
[13]Xing Y Q, Kolstad C D. Do Lax Environmental Regulations Attract Foreign Direct Investment? [J]. Environmental and Resource Economics, 2002, 21(1):1-23.
[14]張成,陸旸,郭陸,等. 環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度和生產(chǎn)技術(shù)進(jìn)步[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)研究,2011,(2):113-124.[Zhang Cheng, Lu Yang, Guo Lu, et al. The Intensity of Environmental Regulation and Technological Progress of Production[J]. Economic Research Journal, 2011, (2):113-124.]
[15]杜立民. 我國二氧化碳排放的影響因素:基于省級(jí)面板數(shù)據(jù)的研究[J].南方經(jīng)濟(jì),2010,(11):20-33.[Du Liming. Impact Factors of Chinas Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Provincial Panel Data Analysis[J]. South China Journal of Economics, 2010, (11):20-33.]
[16]李眺. 環(huán)境規(guī)制、服務(wù)業(yè)發(fā)展與我國的產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)管理,2013,(8):1-10.[Li Tiao. Environmental Regulation, Service Industry Development and Industial Restructuring[J]. Economic Management, 2013, (8):1-10.]
[17]沈能,劉鳳朝. 高強(qiáng)度的環(huán)境規(guī)制真能促進(jìn)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新嗎?:基于“波特假說”的再檢驗(yàn)[J]. 中國軟科學(xué),2012,(4):49-59.[Shen Neng, Liu Fengchao. Can Intensive Environmental Regulation Promote Technological Innovation?:Porter Hypothesis Reexamined[J]. China Soft Science,2012,(4):49-59.]
[18]李鍇,齊紹洲. 貿(mào)易開放、經(jīng)濟(jì)增長與中國二氧化碳排放[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)研究,2011,(11):60-72.[Li Kai, Qi Shaozhou. Trade Openness, Economic Growth and Carbon Dioxide Emission in China[J]. Economic Research Journal, 2011, (11):60-72.]
[19]李玲,陶峰. 中國制造業(yè)最優(yōu)環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度的選擇:基于綠色全要素生產(chǎn)率的視角[J].中國工業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì),2012,(5):70-82.[Li Ling, Tao Feng. Selection of Optimal Environmental Regulation Intensity for Chinese Manufacturing Industry: Based on the Green TFP Perspective[J].China Industrial Economics, 2012, (5):70-82.]
Abstract Focusing on the basic issue how environmental regulation affects carbon emissions and theoretically explaining two possible results about green paradox and forced emissionreduction, we believe that environmental regulation will not only have a direct impact on carbon emissions, but also exert an indirect impact by four transmission channels of the energy consumption structure, industrial structure, technological innovation and FDI. On this basis, we empirically analyze the dual effects of environmental regulation on carbon emissions through Chinas provincial panel data during 2000-2011, with twostep GMM method. Specifically, introducing the square term of environmental regulation, we investigate nonlinear direct relationship between environmental regulation and carbon emissions. Furthermore, we construct cross terms of environmental regulation and energy consumption structure, industrial structure, technological innovation & FDI to explore indirect relationship between environmental regulation and carbon emissions. The results indicate that the direct impact of environmental regulation on carbon emissions manifests inverted Ushaped curve. In other words, with intensity of environmental regulation from weak to strong, ‘green paradox effect will translate into ‘forced emissionreduction effect. In terms of Chinas actual situation, current environmental regulation effectively curb carbon emissions and achieve the desired effect. Energy consumption structure significantly promote carbon emissions, regardless of whether it is constrained by environmental regulation. Upgrading industrial structure and stimulating technological innovation, environmental regulation reverses the direction of industrial structure and technological innovation on carbon emissions. Regrettably, environmental regulation results in FDI performance of the ‘pollution haven effect because of suppressing environmental spillovers effect and capital accumulation of FDI and weakening national enterprise technology absorption capacity. As a result, the government should properly strengthen environmental regulation intensity and select environmental regulation tools, and makes the decline stage of inverted ushaped curve more significant and lasting. Meanwhile, in order to maximize the carbon emissions effects of environmental regulation, the government needs reform energy price, improve the environmental protection technology and optimize the FDI investment and investment strategy.
Key words green paradox; environmental regulation; carbon emissions; dual effect
[10]彭星,李斌,金培振. 文化非正式制度有利于經(jīng)濟(jì)低碳轉(zhuǎn)型嗎?地方政府競爭視角下的門限回歸分析[J].財(cái)經(jīng)研究,2013,(7):110-121.[Peng Xing, Li Bin, Jin Peizhen. Are Informal Culture Institutions Good for Lowcarbon Economic Transformation in China? [J]. Journal of Finance and Economics, 2013, (7): 110-121.]
[11]Testa F, Iraldo F, Frey M. The Effect of Environmental Regulation on Firms Competitive Performance: The Case of the Building & Construction Sector in Some EU Regions[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 2011, 92:2136-2144.
[12]Di Maria C, Lange I, Van der Werf E. Should We Be Worried About the Green Paradox? Announcement Effects of the Acid Rain Program[J/OL]. European Economic Review, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2013.03.010.
[13]Xing Y Q, Kolstad C D. Do Lax Environmental Regulations Attract Foreign Direct Investment? [J]. Environmental and Resource Economics, 2002, 21(1):1-23.
[14]張成,陸旸,郭陸,等. 環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度和生產(chǎn)技術(shù)進(jìn)步[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)研究,2011,(2):113-124.[Zhang Cheng, Lu Yang, Guo Lu, et al. The Intensity of Environmental Regulation and Technological Progress of Production[J]. Economic Research Journal, 2011, (2):113-124.]
[15]杜立民. 我國二氧化碳排放的影響因素:基于省級(jí)面板數(shù)據(jù)的研究[J].南方經(jīng)濟(jì),2010,(11):20-33.[Du Liming. Impact Factors of Chinas Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Provincial Panel Data Analysis[J]. South China Journal of Economics, 2010, (11):20-33.]
[16]李眺. 環(huán)境規(guī)制、服務(wù)業(yè)發(fā)展與我國的產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)管理,2013,(8):1-10.[Li Tiao. Environmental Regulation, Service Industry Development and Industial Restructuring[J]. Economic Management, 2013, (8):1-10.]
[17]沈能,劉鳳朝. 高強(qiáng)度的環(huán)境規(guī)制真能促進(jìn)技術(shù)創(chuàng)新嗎?:基于“波特假說”的再檢驗(yàn)[J]. 中國軟科學(xué),2012,(4):49-59.[Shen Neng, Liu Fengchao. Can Intensive Environmental Regulation Promote Technological Innovation?:Porter Hypothesis Reexamined[J]. China Soft Science,2012,(4):49-59.]
[18]李鍇,齊紹洲. 貿(mào)易開放、經(jīng)濟(jì)增長與中國二氧化碳排放[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)研究,2011,(11):60-72.[Li Kai, Qi Shaozhou. Trade Openness, Economic Growth and Carbon Dioxide Emission in China[J]. Economic Research Journal, 2011, (11):60-72.]
[19]李玲,陶峰. 中國制造業(yè)最優(yōu)環(huán)境規(guī)制強(qiáng)度的選擇:基于綠色全要素生產(chǎn)率的視角[J].中國工業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì),2012,(5):70-82.[Li Ling, Tao Feng. Selection of Optimal Environmental Regulation Intensity for Chinese Manufacturing Industry: Based on the Green TFP Perspective[J].China Industrial Economics, 2012, (5):70-82.]
Abstract Focusing on the basic issue how environmental regulation affects carbon emissions and theoretically explaining two possible results about green paradox and forced emissionreduction, we believe that environmental regulation will not only have a direct impact on carbon emissions, but also exert an indirect impact by four transmission channels of the energy consumption structure, industrial structure, technological innovation and FDI. On this basis, we empirically analyze the dual effects of environmental regulation on carbon emissions through Chinas provincial panel data during 2000-2011, with twostep GMM method. Specifically, introducing the square term of environmental regulation, we investigate nonlinear direct relationship between environmental regulation and carbon emissions. Furthermore, we construct cross terms of environmental regulation and energy consumption structure, industrial structure, technological innovation & FDI to explore indirect relationship between environmental regulation and carbon emissions. The results indicate that the direct impact of environmental regulation on carbon emissions manifests inverted Ushaped curve. In other words, with intensity of environmental regulation from weak to strong, ‘green paradox effect will translate into ‘forced emissionreduction effect. In terms of Chinas actual situation, current environmental regulation effectively curb carbon emissions and achieve the desired effect. Energy consumption structure significantly promote carbon emissions, regardless of whether it is constrained by environmental regulation. Upgrading industrial structure and stimulating technological innovation, environmental regulation reverses the direction of industrial structure and technological innovation on carbon emissions. Regrettably, environmental regulation results in FDI performance of the ‘pollution haven effect because of suppressing environmental spillovers effect and capital accumulation of FDI and weakening national enterprise technology absorption capacity. As a result, the government should properly strengthen environmental regulation intensity and select environmental regulation tools, and makes the decline stage of inverted ushaped curve more significant and lasting. Meanwhile, in order to maximize the carbon emissions effects of environmental regulation, the government needs reform energy price, improve the environmental protection technology and optimize the FDI investment and investment strategy.
Key words green paradox; environmental regulation; carbon emissions; dual effect