雷萍莉,王志娟
(1.廣東白云學院外國語學院,廣東 廣州 510450;2.廣東交通職業(yè)技術(shù)學院 基礎(chǔ)部,廣東 廣州 510650)
國外對于隱喻的研究由來已久,從古代的亞里士多德開始就有了對于隱喻的闡釋,亞里士多德說:用一個表示某物的詞借喻它物,這個詞便成了隱喻詞[1]。1936年Richards提出了隱喻互動理論,標志著現(xiàn)代隱喻學的誕生。1980年,George Lakoff和Mark Johnson共同完成的“Metaphors We Live By”(《我們賴以生存的隱喻》)一書,被人們認為是研究隱喻的扛鼎之作。在這本書中,他們提出了“概念隱喻”(conceptual metaphor)這一概念,認為隱喻是從一個具體的概念域向一個抽象的概念域的系統(tǒng)映射[2]。因此,這本書標志著基于認知觀的隱喻研究全面開始。而系統(tǒng)功能語言學的創(chuàng)始人Halliday在其著作《功能語法導論》中提出了“語法隱喻”(grammatical metaphor)的概念,他認為隱喻是意義表達的變異,不僅僅是詞匯的選擇。
“隱喻在日常生活中是無處不在的,不但在語言中,而且在思想和行為中,我們用來思考和行動的日常概念系統(tǒng),在本質(zhì)上也是隱喻性的?!保?]很多語篇類型都包含著隱喻的應用,如文學作品、經(jīng)濟語篇、新聞語篇等等。下文將從概念隱喻和語法隱喻兩個方面對外刊經(jīng)貿(mào)語篇當中的隱喻式表達進行分析。
隱喻涉及兩個不同的認知領(lǐng)域的語義互動,其中某一領(lǐng)域被用來描述另一領(lǐng)域。被描述的領(lǐng)域被稱作目標域(target domain),用來描述的領(lǐng)域被稱作原域(source domain)。隱喻意義的理解實際上就是將原域的經(jīng)驗映射到目標域,從而達到重新認識目標域相關(guān)特征的目的[3]。喻體與本體的相似性是構(gòu)成隱喻的基礎(chǔ),根據(jù)隱喻意義形成的過程和方式,Lakoff和Johnson將其分為結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻(structural metaphor)、方位隱喻(orientational metaphor)和本體隱喻(ontological metaphor)三類[2]。在英語中,隱喻有名詞性隱喻、動詞性隱喻、形容詞性隱喻、副詞性隱喻和介詞性隱喻等形式。
結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻(structural metaphor):是指用一種概念的結(jié)構(gòu)去構(gòu)建另一種概念,用談論的一種概念的詞語來談論另一概念,通常是用域源(source domain)中具體的或比較熟悉的概念去類比目標域(target domain)中抽象的或比較陌生的概念。也就是說,一個概念是以另一個概念為基礎(chǔ)產(chǎn)生的,這類隱喻植根于我們的經(jīng)驗。結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻在經(jīng)貿(mào)語篇中最為常見,因為在經(jīng)濟與貿(mào)易領(lǐng)域,有許多概念和活動對于大眾讀者來講比較抽象和復雜,難于理解,而運用結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻,將它們映射到我們?nèi)粘I钪斜容^熟悉的事物和易于理解的概念上,就能形象生動地描述經(jīng)貿(mào)領(lǐng)域的各種現(xiàn)象及其運作和發(fā)展。下面寥舉幾例:
例1Coca-Cola and PepsiCo don't wage mere market share battles.They fight holy wars.These days the fighting is on two fronts.One is on the vast plains of the cola business where the reformulation of Coke has Pepsi on the defensive.The other is in the back alleys of the smaller,non-cola market.Until now these have been dominated by other companies.(Soft Drink Wars:the Next Battle,F(xiàn)ortune,June 24,1985)
上句中將Coca-Cola和PepsiCo兩個可樂公司的營銷競爭映射到“battles”(戰(zhàn)爭)這個概念上,以戰(zhàn)爭的各種特征,包括作戰(zhàn)(wage)、前線(fronts)、平原(vast plains)、守勢(defensive)、巷戰(zhàn)(back alleys)、占領(lǐng)(dominated)來描述其營銷之爭,非常形象生動地描述了兩家公司市場競爭的激烈程度,易于理解,令人印象深刻。類似映射還有:
例2 For centuries,economic battles have led to some of history's bloodiest wars.(Economic Troubles Cloud New Market's Future,The Christian Science Monitor,Dec.30,1992)
例3 Domestically,sales of soft drinks have been bubbling along nicely.(Soft Drink Wars:the Next Battle,F(xiàn)ortune,June 24,1985)
此句中,軟飲料的銷售被隱喻為“冒泡”(bubbling),從而使得軟飲料銷售的一派繁榮景象躍然紙上。
例4 But perhaps the major reason is the dark economic clouds now hanging over Europe.(Economic Troubles Cloud New Market's Future,The Christian Science Monitor,Dec.30,1992)
上句中將經(jīng)濟描繪成“烏云”(dark economic clouds)籠罩在(hanging over)歐洲上空,經(jīng)濟具有了天氣的特征,從而使讀者能真切地感受到當時不景氣的經(jīng)濟對人們心理的影響。我們也經(jīng)常聽到“financial storms”之說。
方位隱喻(orientational metaphor):是通過空間概念,如上下、前后、深淺、遠近、中心、邊緣等來理解非空間所構(gòu)成的隱喻,故也被稱作空間隱喻。在人們的普遍觀念中,“上”與“前”皆屬正面、積極的意象,而“下”與“后”則為其負面。在經(jīng)貿(mào)語篇中,這些原始的具體方位概念往往被投射于經(jīng)濟狀況、數(shù)量等抽象概念上。
例5 The Great Leap Forward of 1958-1959 initially produced gains in agricultural and industrial production,but subsequently resulted in serious economic imbalances.(China in the Market Place,China Now,spring 1985,No.112)
例6 The central government's determination to raise the level of industrial technology is clearly behind the decision to open the 14 coastal cities.(The Curtain Goes up,F(xiàn)ar Eastern Economic Review,31 Jan.,1985)
例7 As a result,the visible trade surplus rose sharply from US$1.4 billion in 1981 to US$4.4 billion in 1982 and US$3.7 billion in 1983.(China in the Market Place,China Now,spring 1985,No.112)
例8 The growth of foreign trade was disputed again during the Cultural Revolution(1966-1976)when agricultural and industrial productionfell sharply and transportation constraints became more serious.(China in the Market Place,China Now,spring 1985,No.112)
基于“The situation is a location”的概念隱喻,方位隱喻可被用來描述事態(tài)發(fā)展狀況。
例9 As a result the world is now close to concluding the Uruguay round of GATT talks.That deal is admittedly far from perfect,a series of messy compromises.(Free Trade,with Luck,The Economist,Oct.17,1992)
例10 Clearly,China's economy is a work in progress,nowhere near realizing the potential of its billion-plus population.(Beijing Rising,Newsweek,F(xiàn)eb.15,1993)
本體隱喻(ontological metaphor):是指人類以自身經(jīng)驗和生理實體為基礎(chǔ),把事件、行為、情感、思想等抽象概念轉(zhuǎn)換為實體。這類隱喻包含三個次分類:實體與物質(zhì)隱喻(entity and substance metaphor)、容器隱喻(container metaphor)、擬人化(personification)。
1.3.1 實體與物質(zhì)隱喻
指的是把經(jīng)驗視作實體或物質(zhì),通過后者來理解前者,就可對經(jīng)驗做出相應的物質(zhì)性描述,如指稱、量化、分類,使其帶上某類物質(zhì)的特征,加以引申,進行推理,分析其相應的原因等。經(jīng)貿(mào)語篇中,必然包含大量對經(jīng)濟現(xiàn)象及規(guī)律、政治問題及貿(mào)易運作等抽象概念的解釋,而使用實體與物質(zhì)隱喻就有助于人們對抽象的經(jīng)濟規(guī)律及貿(mào)易運作的理解和把握。
例11 A Clearly confident China has rolled up a large section of its bamboo curtain,declared itself“open to the outside world”and hung signs on nearly all its cities inviting foreign investors to come and do serious business.(The Curtain Goes up,F(xiàn)ar Eastern Economic Review,31 Jan.,1985)
句子用“竹幕”(bamboo curtain)一詞,一方面區(qū)別于當時冷戰(zhàn)歷史背景下的東歐各社會主義國家的“鐵幕”(iron curtain),另一方面說明中國當時也處于一種自我封閉的狀態(tài),急待改革開放。這類隱喻在經(jīng)貿(mào)語篇中不勝枚舉,如將困境隱喻為“bottleneck”,將不完善的地方隱喻為“holes”,把態(tài)度強硬的人稱作“鷹”(hawks),而將態(tài)度溫和的稱為“鴿”(pigeon)。
1.3.2 容器隱喻
就是把容器的概念投射到其他抽象概念,如:田野、行為、事件和活動等等,使這些本不是容器的事物具有跟容器一樣的邊界、可量化、能進且可出的特性。在經(jīng)貿(mào)英語中,容器概念主要由in和out,into和out of兩組表示空間的概念來體現(xiàn)。
例12 Boeing and Rolls-Royce will be paid in cash from the proceeds,and Saudi Arabia will get its aircraft without dipping into its currency reserves.(The Comeback of Ⅰnternational Barter,Reader's Digest,August,1985)
例13 Some of the Clinton administration's tough talk appears tactical,intended to pressure trading partners into offering concession and to unblock stalled negotiations on several fronts.(U.S.Ⅰs Prepared to See Trade Relations Worsen,Ⅰnternational Herald Tribune,F(xiàn)eb.18,1993)
例14 This should hardly be surprising as contracts worth more than$2,500 million have been let in the past 12 months.(Prosperity Persists in the UAE,Middle East Economic Digest,May 7,1993)
1.3.3 擬人隱喻
將人的概念投射到其它事物上,用人類動機、性
例15 If these products live up to their early performance in test markets-a big if-they could produce$3 billion a year in retail sales.(Soft Drink Wars:the Next Battle,F(xiàn)ortune,June 24,1985)
例16 The seven major industrial countries experienced a significant slowdown in GDP growth—from 2.8 per cent in 1990 to 1.9 per cent during 1991 as recession gripped Canada,the United Kingdom,and the United States.(The Economic Scene:A Global Perspective,The World Bank Annual Report,1992)
例17 One of the central justifications for the single market was its ability to create greater prosperity,but it is making its debut just as Europe traverses one of its roughest economic storms in years.(Economic Troubles Cloud New Market's Future,The Christian Science Monitor,Dec.30,1992)格、行為等理解非人類物體,這就是擬人隱喻。這種隱喻的特點便是,我們可以用人的概念來理解世界上其它事物和現(xiàn)象。在經(jīng)貿(mào)語篇中,將經(jīng)濟現(xiàn)象和政策擬人化也不少見。
以上所討論的概念隱喻都是發(fā)生在詞匯層面,所以也被稱為詞匯隱喻,而Halliday認為,隱喻不僅可以發(fā)生在詞匯層,也可以發(fā)生在語法層。對每個語義形式而言,在其從語義層到詞匯語法層之間的各種體現(xiàn)關(guān)系中,至少有一個“一致”的體現(xiàn)形式,除此之外,還可能有另外一個或一些被轉(zhuǎn)義的“非一致”式,或稱為隱喻式,這就是Halliday的語法隱喻模式觀[4]。他還明確提出,詞匯隱喻與語法隱喻的根本區(qū)別在于:詞匯隱喻的本質(zhì)是“能指相同,所指不同”;而語法隱喻則是“所指相同,能指不同”。名詞化(nominalization)是語法隱喻的主要來源[5]。名詞化的隱喻表達在經(jīng)貿(mào)語篇中被大量運用。
例18 a.Yet,below the surface calm,defense is of great concern.The topic dominated discussions at the GCC summit in Abu Dhabi in December,and in February the government announced its biggest-ever investment in defense equipment at IDEX 1993,an exhibition held in Abu Dhabi.(Prosperity Persists in the UAE,Middle East Economic Digest,May 7,1993)
b.Yet,below the surface calm,Abu Dhabi is greatly concerned with defense.The GCC summit in Abu Dhabi in December kept discussing about the topic of defense,and in February the government announced that it would invest in defense equipment at IDEX 1993,an exhibition held in Abu Dhabi.
例19 a.The weakness of dollar commodity prices,combined with the decline of the dollar,is having an important restraining influence on inflation in many industrial countries.(Soft Commodities,F(xiàn)inancial Times,July 23,1986)
b.Dollar commodity prices are weak,at the same time,the dollar is declined,which have greatly restrained the inflation in many industrial countries.
上面兩組句子中,a為“非一致”的隱喻式,b為一致式,可以明顯地看出,采用隱喻式表達的a句比b句的小句級別低,在相同的語篇內(nèi)可以承載更豐富的信息流。不僅如此,例18a句中,利用“defense”和“the topic”兩個物化名詞作主語,使語篇更顯客觀化,而且,因為“the topic”即“defense”,使前后兩句保持話題一致,相對于b中兩句分別采用“Abu Dhabi”和“the GCC”作主語,使語篇銜接更自然。
隱喻由認知而起,又是認知的結(jié)果,同時又推動了認知的發(fā)展,這就揭示出隱喻在人類認知和推理的過程中所起到的重要作用,它對于人類認識世界、形成概念、發(fā)展知識、進行思維、做出推理具有至關(guān)緊要的意義[6]。上文主要討論了認知語言學范圍內(nèi)的概念隱喻及系統(tǒng)功能語言學范疇內(nèi)的名詞化隱喻形式在經(jīng)貿(mào)語篇中的運用,通過觀察,我們發(fā)現(xiàn),在英語經(jīng)貿(mào)類文章中存在著大量的隱喻式表達。在詞匯層,結(jié)構(gòu)隱喻、方位隱喻及本體隱喻有效地將一些我們熟悉的概念映射到政策、經(jīng)濟及貿(mào)易等相對抽象、并且難于理解的領(lǐng)域,運用始源域與目標域特征的相似性及可比性幫助讀者快速、高效地理解目標域的新信息,而且隱喻的精練、新奇和婉轉(zhuǎn)等特征為增加語言的修辭效果提供了可能;在語法層的隱喻,尤其是名詞化表達則使得信息密集程度更高,同等篇幅中可以包含更大的信息量,而且它也有效地保證了語篇的自然銜接和客觀化。
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