吳彥
融合教育是全世界不斷強(qiáng)調(diào)的教育趨勢(shì)。在我國(guó),各地政府開(kāi)始出臺(tái)相應(yīng)文件,提倡并支持學(xué)前融合教育的實(shí)行。《第二期特殊教育提升計(jì)劃(2017-2020年)》中指出,要“加大力度發(fā)展特殊幼兒學(xué)前教育,支持普通幼兒園接受殘疾幼兒”。2017年5月開(kāi)始施行的《殘疾人教育條例》規(guī)定:學(xué)前教育機(jī)構(gòu)、各級(jí)各類學(xué)校及其他教育機(jī)構(gòu)應(yīng)當(dāng)依照本條例以及國(guó)家有關(guān)法律、法規(guī)的規(guī)定,實(shí)施殘疾人教育;對(duì)符合法律、法規(guī)規(guī)定條件的殘疾人申請(qǐng)入學(xué),不得拒絕招收。
學(xué)前融合教育是將0~6歲的特殊幼兒融入普通幼兒園班級(jí),期望在整體融合環(huán)境中通過(guò)讓特殊幼兒接受相同的教育和額外的照顧,增加其與普通幼兒交流的機(jī)會(huì),從而提升他們的受教育質(zhì)量[1]。國(guó)內(nèi)外對(duì)特殊幼兒融合教育的社會(huì)氛圍和對(duì)融合教育質(zhì)量的關(guān)注,是由對(duì)特殊幼兒融合教育的益處和重要性的認(rèn)識(shí)變化而引起的。特殊幼兒融合教育帶來(lái)的諸多優(yōu)點(diǎn)之一是包括特殊幼兒在內(nèi)的融合班級(jí)所有幼兒的社會(huì)發(fā)展。全美幼兒教育協(xié)會(huì)(NAEYC)和美國(guó)特殊兒童協(xié)會(huì)幼兒教育分會(huì)(DEC)共同發(fā)表的文件指出,融合教育對(duì)所有幼兒都有利,能夠讓所有的幼兒最大限度地發(fā)揮他們的潛力,擁有歸屬感,并促進(jìn)幼兒間積極的社會(huì)關(guān)系的形成以及各個(gè)領(lǐng)域的發(fā)展[2]。融合教育環(huán)境通過(guò)班級(jí)活動(dòng)開(kāi)展,為促進(jìn)兒童的同伴交往、提高社會(huì)能力、形成積極的社會(huì)關(guān)系提供了最佳機(jī)會(huì)[3][4]。然而為特殊幼兒提供和普通幼兒之間的交往機(jī)會(huì),或者僅僅是將特殊幼兒?jiǎn)渭兊匕仓迷谌诤辖逃h(huán)境中,并不會(huì)產(chǎn)生有意義的交往[5],無(wú)法提高他們的社會(huì)地位和能力[6],也很難增加同伴交往機(jī)會(huì)或提高同伴對(duì)他們的積極態(tài)度[7]。因此在融合教育環(huán)境中開(kāi)展面向所有幼兒的諸如同伴交往及社會(huì)接納等社會(huì)性提升的教育及支持就非常重要[8]。
本研究將從特殊幼兒的同伴交往特征和班級(jí)范圍干預(yù)兩部分展開(kāi)探討。
特殊幼兒同伴交往的重要性及特征
幼兒期的個(gè)體同伴交往行為明顯增加,此階段教育的重要目標(biāo)之一是交往所必需的社會(huì)行為的發(fā)展[9]。融合教育環(huán)境中,特殊幼兒與普通幼兒同伴交往的重要性包括兩個(gè)方面:
第一,與同伴的交往是個(gè)體一生中所必需的重要技能,幼兒期的同伴交往是形成積極的社會(huì)關(guān)系、實(shí)現(xiàn)社會(huì)融合的重要社會(huì)技能,是預(yù)測(cè)今后社會(huì)能力的重要因素之一。幼兒在園的大部分生活是在與同伴的社會(huì)交往下進(jìn)行的,通過(guò)幼兒和同伴之間的交往程度,可以了解其在社會(huì)所屬群體中的接納程度。作為形成友情的必要技能,維持交往的能力在當(dāng)前和未來(lái)有意義的社會(huì)關(guān)系中發(fā)揮著重要作用[10]。另外,特殊幼兒的同伴交往使其能夠參與社區(qū)的業(yè)余活動(dòng),也體現(xiàn)在其成年時(shí)的就業(yè)情況和職業(yè)表現(xiàn)中[11]。因此,學(xué)習(xí)并使用社會(huì)技能和交往能力對(duì)幼兒當(dāng)前的生活和長(zhǎng)期的成就都很重要。
第二,同伴交往是特殊幼兒學(xué)習(xí)其他必需技能的有用工具[12]。幼兒期的同伴交往是學(xué)習(xí)對(duì)發(fā)展有積極影響的多樣化知識(shí)和技能的手段[13][14]。特殊幼兒在融合環(huán)境中自然地模仿普通同伴或與同伴進(jìn)行交往和社會(huì)性游戲,有助于他們?cè)谡J(rèn)知、語(yǔ)言、溝通等領(lǐng)域的有意義的學(xué)習(xí)[15]。
即使特殊幼兒和普通幼兒的交往如此重要,但僅僅通過(guò)在融合班級(jí)或者社區(qū)進(jìn)行物理上的融合,依然無(wú)法讓特殊幼兒和同伴進(jìn)行有意義的交往[16]。實(shí)際上,接受融合教育的許多特殊幼兒在融合班級(jí)里經(jīng)歷了包括交往困難在內(nèi)的各種社會(huì)困難。特殊幼兒在游戲中發(fā)起交往的行為頻率低[17],在游戲中與同伴交往的頻率低,和一般幼兒的同伴關(guān)系形成在質(zhì)和量上有區(qū)別。與一般幼兒相比,特殊幼兒更容易被同伴拒絕[18]。典型發(fā)育的幼兒從同伴或周圍人那里自然習(xí)得交往方法[19],隨著時(shí)間的流逝,他們?cè)谡J(rèn)知、社會(huì)、語(yǔ)言等方面變得越來(lái)越成熟,并逐漸形成積極的同伴與成年人關(guān)系[20]。但是特殊幼兒僅憑在融合教育環(huán)境中與正在典型發(fā)育的同伴間的自然游戲和交往,很難和他們形成積極的關(guān)系或取得多樣的發(fā)展成就。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),普通幼兒只想和典型發(fā)育的普通幼兒游戲[21][22],不想與特殊幼兒建立友誼[23]。融合班級(jí)的普通幼兒常在各種游戲中排除“發(fā)育遲緩”或“殘疾”的幼兒,或者讓特殊幼兒在游戲中處于從屬角色[24]。針對(duì)這一現(xiàn)象,許多研究者試圖通過(guò)對(duì)特殊幼兒同伴交往模式和行為特性的研究,來(lái)推論他們難以融入社會(huì)的原因。
研究結(jié)果表明,特殊幼兒的以下特征使其在融合教育環(huán)境中的社會(huì)交往存在困難:
1.特殊幼兒的非典型行為特征對(duì)同伴交往和社會(huì)關(guān)系產(chǎn)生負(fù)面影響。如果出現(xiàn)意想不到的反應(yīng),特殊幼兒在調(diào)整或控制自己的行為上存在困難,因此在與他人建立理想的社會(huì)關(guān)系上可能會(huì)失敗。特殊幼兒的行為很難預(yù)測(cè),且社會(huì)能力與同伴發(fā)展不一致[25],因此與普通幼兒相比,特殊幼兒的同伴交往發(fā)生率較低,合作游戲持續(xù)時(shí)間較短[26]。
2.特殊幼兒的社會(huì)技能不足,會(huì)導(dǎo)致同伴交往發(fā)生頻率降低、交往方式偏否定性且適應(yīng)力低[27],這更難以形成同伴關(guān)系。特殊幼兒的親社會(huì)行為及技能(如對(duì)同伴的積極反應(yīng)、稱贊、鼓勵(lì)等)普遍缺乏或不成熟。由于缺乏與對(duì)話相關(guān)的基本社會(huì)知識(shí)和技能,特殊幼兒很難準(zhǔn)確掌握同伴的意圖。因此,他們對(duì)同伴交往容易失去自信、動(dòng)機(jī)和興趣[28]。另外,社會(huì)技能不足導(dǎo)致的不成熟交往會(huì)引發(fā)特殊幼兒對(duì)同伴有攻擊性行為,這也是同伴對(duì)特殊幼兒產(chǎn)生否定態(tài)度的原因[29]。特殊幼兒常常感到孤獨(dú)和被孤立,和同伴難以建立友誼[30],不僅受同伴的接納程度較低,也會(huì)遭到拒絕[31][32][33]。因此特殊幼兒在融合班級(jí)內(nèi)常常不能與普通幼兒成功地游戲,在同伴間被認(rèn)為是不愉快或不滿意的對(duì)象,被大家從潛在的游戲?qū)ο笾信懦_@樣的低同伴接納會(huì)隨著時(shí)間的推移有更穩(wěn)定的傾向[34],甚至導(dǎo)致他們更加社會(huì)孤立[35]。
當(dāng)然也有在融合環(huán)境中很容易被同伴接納、有良好同伴交往的特殊幼兒,他們都有著有效的社會(huì)技能,能夠很好地維持朋友關(guān)系、參與角色游戲,能正確地解讀同伴的行為并做出恰當(dāng)?shù)姆磻?yīng)。相反,被同伴拒絕的特殊幼兒表現(xiàn)出不能有效溝通、社會(huì)技能不足、與同伴產(chǎn)生矛盾或不能玩正向的游戲的行動(dòng)特征。也就是說(shuō),是否有恰當(dāng)?shù)慕煌蜕鐣?huì)技能決定著社會(huì)融合的成敗。所以,為了積極的同伴關(guān)系和成功的社會(huì)融合,需要在融合教育中進(jìn)行增進(jìn)交往和社會(huì)能力的恰當(dāng)干預(yù)[36]。
融合教育環(huán)境中同伴交往的干預(yù)
隨著安置到普通班級(jí)的特殊幼兒數(shù)量的增加,探索提高普通幼兒對(duì)特殊幼兒的接納度和特殊幼兒的同伴交往的重要性進(jìn)一步凸顯[37]。提升特殊幼兒同伴交往的干預(yù)多為對(duì)特殊幼兒個(gè)別提供的溝通能力和交往能力策略指導(dǎo),然而融合教育環(huán)境中的同伴交往不僅包含特殊幼兒,同時(shí)包含普通幼兒,因此如果僅對(duì)特殊幼兒進(jìn)行干預(yù),并不能有效提升普通幼兒對(duì)其接納度和增加同伴交往。只有面向全體幼兒的干預(yù),才能夠有效提高特殊幼兒與普通幼兒同伴交往的質(zhì)量。因此,在融合教育環(huán)境中以全班為對(duì)象的社會(huì)技能干預(yù)備受關(guān)注[38][39]。Brown等將提升同伴交往干預(yù)分為班級(jí)范圍干預(yù)、自然同伴交往干預(yù)、顯性社會(huì)技能干預(yù)三個(gè)部分[40]。其中,班級(jí)范圍的干預(yù)被認(rèn)為是為了支持特殊幼兒的交往和教育而進(jìn)行的基本和基礎(chǔ)的干預(yù)[41]。
班級(jí)范圍干預(yù)(Classroomwide intervention)面向班級(jí)所有幼兒,旨在提高幼兒的交往及社會(huì)能力。它與個(gè)別幼兒的相對(duì)能力和需要無(wú)關(guān),是面向班級(jí)內(nèi)所有幼兒的社會(huì)技能干預(yù),尤其在幫助首次入學(xué)教育機(jī)構(gòu)的幼兒解決社會(huì)、行為等問(wèn)題方面,是非常有效的[42]。班級(jí)范圍的社會(huì)技能干預(yù),即使不另外花費(fèi)時(shí)間也可以進(jìn)行,且實(shí)行的可能性和效率也很高[43]。因此,即使不開(kāi)發(fā)個(gè)別化計(jì)劃或增加一般不提供的資源,也可以通過(guò)最少的努力和介入來(lái)解決多名幼兒的問(wèn)題[44][45]。這種干預(yù)尤其對(duì)有特殊幼兒或殘疾危險(xiǎn)的幼兒在普通班級(jí)的時(shí)候最有效[46]。
由于班級(jí)范圍普遍性干預(yù)的優(yōu)點(diǎn),越來(lái)越多的研究聚焦于特殊幼兒所屬環(huán)境的同伴身上,研究同伴主導(dǎo)的開(kāi)始行為、同伴接納及友誼活動(dòng)[47],與此同時(shí),還強(qiáng)調(diào)支持特殊幼兒的社會(huì)交往和同伴關(guān)系的階層模型(An intervention hierarchy)[48][49]。提升特殊幼兒同伴交往的階層模型是指以融合班級(jí)所有幼兒為對(duì)象,從基礎(chǔ)性、介入程度最低的、最少限制的干預(yù)開(kāi)始,如果有需要,則以小集體或個(gè)別幼兒為對(duì)象,提供更高強(qiáng)度的干預(yù)。
如圖1所示,班級(jí)范圍干預(yù)可以分為發(fā)展適宜性教育(developmental appropriate practices,DAP)、融合教育(inclusive preschool education)、社會(huì)能力教育課程(social competence curricula)及情感干預(yù)(affective preschool intervention)四種。其中,發(fā)展適宜性教育(DAP)是基于幼兒自然發(fā)展的教育,強(qiáng)調(diào)根據(jù)幼兒年齡特點(diǎn)、個(gè)別幼兒的興趣和發(fā)展程度、學(xué)習(xí)方式和需求等考慮教育課程的計(jì)劃和執(zhí)行。班級(jí)范圍干預(yù)是以發(fā)展適宜性教育為基礎(chǔ)進(jìn)行的。符合發(fā)展適宜性教育原則的幼兒園,幼兒的社會(huì)技能如合作、分享和自控等能力發(fā)展較好[50]。許多早期特殊教育工作者已經(jīng)認(rèn)識(shí)到發(fā)展適宜性教育為特殊幼兒或普通幼兒提供個(gè)性化服務(wù)的重要性[51]。Ladd和Coleman提出,提高同伴相關(guān)社會(huì)能力的兩個(gè)重要途徑是接近(與有能力的同伴交往的機(jī)會(huì))和積極的同伴交往豐富歷史(頻繁與多個(gè)同伴交往),支持幼兒同伴交往的發(fā)展適宜性教育和早期融合項(xiàng)目可以為幼兒的社會(huì)能力提供這兩個(gè)關(guān)鍵途徑,因此融合班級(jí)教師應(yīng)該在早期融合項(xiàng)目中進(jìn)行發(fā)展適宜性教育[52]。
社會(huì)能力教育課程的目標(biāo)是發(fā)展幼兒的社會(huì)技能,以預(yù)防幼兒?jiǎn)栴}行為的發(fā)生、提高其社會(huì)能力,以此提升特殊幼兒同伴交往能力。很多社會(huì)能力教育課程已經(jīng)在幼兒教育環(huán)境中被驗(yàn)證使用,例如:The Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies curriculum(以下簡(jiǎn)稱PATHS課程)和Incredible Years Parents, Teachers, and Childrens Training Series curriculum(以下簡(jiǎn)稱IY課程)等 [53][54]。
PATHS課程旨在提高4~11歲幼兒的社會(huì)能力、減少其行為問(wèn)題,在學(xué)校班級(jí)中實(shí)施[55],對(duì)普通幼兒和特殊幼兒都有積極效果。學(xué)前PATHS課程包含大約40個(gè)課時(shí),集中于情感識(shí)別、自我控制策略和人際關(guān)系等相關(guān)主題,每周或每?jī)芍茉谡n堂小組時(shí)間實(shí)施[56][57]。Gibson等人在美國(guó)中西部蒙臺(tái)梭利學(xué)校對(duì)80名3~6歲的幼兒檢驗(yàn)了PATHS課程的效果[58]。研究結(jié)果表明,實(shí)施PATHS課程后,所有幼兒的情緒理解、親社會(huì)行為均顯著提高。Mihic等人在克羅地亞實(shí)施學(xué)前PATHS課程,對(duì)來(lái)自三個(gè)地區(qū)六所幼兒園中的六個(gè)班級(jí)共164名3~6歲幼兒實(shí)施了PATHS課程,結(jié)果顯示,幼兒的社會(huì)能力提升的同時(shí),問(wèn)題行為發(fā)生率也同步降低[59]。
IY課程的目的是當(dāng)問(wèn)題行為在嬰兒學(xué)步期到童年中期出現(xiàn)時(shí),通過(guò)家長(zhǎng)、教師的介入,從多個(gè)領(lǐng)域展開(kāi)訓(xùn)練,預(yù)防和治療問(wèn)題行為,提高幼兒的社會(huì)和情緒能力。大量的隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果表明,IY課程能夠顯著提高幼兒的學(xué)校準(zhǔn)備度、情緒管理和社會(huì)技能,減少班級(jí)中的行為問(wèn)題[60]。有研究表明,IY課程不僅對(duì)普通幼兒有效,對(duì)提升特殊幼兒的社會(huì)技能也有顯著效果。Webster-Stratton等人的研究結(jié)果表明,IY課程能夠減少對(duì)立違抗性障礙和品行障礙幼兒的行為問(wèn)題,提高其社會(huì)和情緒能力[61]。
支持幼兒社會(huì)交往的另一個(gè)班級(jí)范圍的策略是情感干預(yù),培養(yǎng)幼兒對(duì)具有不同發(fā)展能力的同伴持有積極態(tài)度[62]。情感干預(yù)的特點(diǎn)是將重點(diǎn)放在改變幼兒對(duì)個(gè)體(尤其是對(duì)殘疾同伴)的態(tài)度和感知。具體來(lái)說(shuō),班級(jí)范圍干預(yù)中的情感干預(yù)向普通幼兒提供間接體驗(yàn)和直接體驗(yàn)。間接體驗(yàn)包括閱讀正向的關(guān)于殘疾兒童的真實(shí)故事,引導(dǎo)普通幼兒討論關(guān)于殘疾人的相關(guān)主題,提供正面描寫(xiě)殘疾人的材料等。直接體驗(yàn)有組織普通幼兒和殘疾幼兒共同進(jìn)行小組游戲等。情感干預(yù)可以讓普通幼兒了解特殊幼兒的特點(diǎn),提高普通幼兒對(duì)殘疾同伴的接納情感,幫助特殊幼兒成為班級(jí)一員[63][64]。
結(jié)論
同伴互動(dòng)和正在形成的與同伴相關(guān)的社會(huì)能力是幼兒發(fā)展的一個(gè)重要方面,發(fā)展積極的同伴關(guān)系是幼兒教育工作者的基礎(chǔ)目標(biāo)。特殊幼兒由于缺乏社會(huì)技能,在融合班級(jí)經(jīng)常承受各種形式的社會(huì)困難。單純的物理融合并不能提高同伴對(duì)特殊幼兒的態(tài)度,也不能自然地增加特殊幼兒的同伴交往,因此教師應(yīng)該為其提供相應(yīng)干預(yù)。融合班級(jí)中的同伴交往提升離不開(kāi)所有幼兒同伴交往技能的增加和普通幼兒對(duì)特殊幼兒接納程度的提高。
班級(jí)范圍的干預(yù)面向融合班級(jí)的所有幼兒,以發(fā)展適宜性教育為指導(dǎo)原則,提供符合幼兒發(fā)展水平、滿足幼兒的各種需要的教育,同時(shí)實(shí)施各類社會(huì)能力教育課程和情感干預(yù),以此來(lái)減少幼兒的問(wèn)題行為,提高其社會(huì)情緒能力,提高普通幼兒對(duì)特殊幼兒的接納態(tài)度,增加普通幼兒和特殊幼兒的同伴交往。
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