田向陽
·綜述·
行為決策的評估理論構建研究
田向陽
中國健康教育中心,北京,100011。
本研究構建了行為決策的評估理論,揭示人類行為發(fā)生、發(fā)展和改變的規(guī)律,為開展健康相關行為干預提供科學依據(jù)。本理論認為,所有的人類行為都是個體為了生存和發(fā)展,在對內(nèi)、外部刺激進行評估后所做出的主動反應。個體以基因遺傳、自我圖式、群體規(guī)范和直覺為參照系,對內(nèi)、外部刺激的重要性、安全性威脅和獲益性,以及個體所擁有的行為資源進行感覺性評估和社會性評估,用以做出生理性反應和社會性行為決策,并通過感受器、中樞神經(jīng)和效應器,形成“刺激-評估-行為決策-行為”循環(huán)。開展行為干預時,應通過與個體進行討論和分析,幫助其發(fā)現(xiàn)和確認刺激的重要性、安全性、獲益性及其擁有的行為資源。
刺激;感覺性評估;社會性評估;重要性評估;獲益性評估;安全性評估;資源評估;評估參照系
行為是健康的重要決定因素。在發(fā)達國家,歸因于吸煙、不健康的飲食習慣、靜坐生活方式等不健康行為的早死超過40%[1]。世界衛(wèi)生組織全球疾病負擔調(diào)查結果表明,2017年行為危險因素對DALYs的貢獻占36.5%[2]。
多年來,國際上開展了大量有關行為的研究,建立了從不同側面解釋行為發(fā)生、發(fā)展和變化的理論模型,對理解和干預人類行為產(chǎn)生了重要影響,但也存在著各自的缺陷和不足。研究表明,應用這些理論或其一部分開展健康相關行為干預取得的效果優(yōu)于不應用理論的干預[3],但這些效果很可能只是控制性研究條件下的“有效性”[4-5],在實際的行為干預項目中,這些理論常常被發(fā)現(xiàn)是無效的[6-7],或總體效果不明確[8]、不持久[9]。即使出現(xiàn)了行為改變,也往往容易回復到原來的狀態(tài)。出現(xiàn)這種現(xiàn)象,很可能是因為這些理論并未準確抓住行為發(fā)生和改變的根源[8]。另外,現(xiàn)有的理論模式是通過對人類各種行為現(xiàn)象進行觀察、歸納推理得出的結論,存在明顯的或然性,有可能遺漏重要信息,甚至得出片面或錯誤的結論。
為了全面揭示人類行為發(fā)生、發(fā)展的根源和本質(zhì)規(guī)律,為健康相關行為干預提供理論依據(jù),本文在大量文獻研究的基礎上,廣泛吸收社會學、心理學、神經(jīng)科學、行為科學、生物學、遺傳學、表觀遺傳學等學科的理論和最新研究成果,提出了行為改變的決策評估理論模型。
行為是人體對除生理發(fā)育變化外的內(nèi)、外部刺激的協(xié)調(diào)反應[10]。人體感受器(眼、耳、鼻、舌、皮膚、黏膜、內(nèi)臟、血管、神經(jīng))和中樞神經(jīng)(大腦和脊髓)需要隨時對內(nèi)外環(huán)境刺激進行評估,并根據(jù)評估結果,做出應對決策[11],由效應器產(chǎn)生相應的生理反應或行為(行動)。生理反應和行為結果作為反饋信息又會被傳回中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng),進行再評估和再決策,產(chǎn)生新的生理反應或新的行為(行動),形成持續(xù)運行的“刺激-評估-行為決策-行為”循環(huán),以保持人體內(nèi)部生理生化穩(wěn)定和與外環(huán)境之間的相對平衡[12]。為此,可把人的行為分為生理性行為(如呼吸、心跳、性沖動等)和社會性行為(如學習、工作、人際交往等)兩類。人的生理性行為屬于非條件反射,較少或不受意識的控制,教育、勸說等外部干預可對生理性行為的幅度、強度、頻率和效率產(chǎn)生影響,但不能消除。社會性行為屬于條件反射,是在意識控制下,經(jīng)過主動建構學習,對人體對內(nèi)、外部刺激做出的反應,是在生理性行為的基礎上,通過教育、勸說和環(huán)境干預而形成的[13-14]。
人體感受器和中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)對內(nèi)、外部刺激的性質(zhì)、頻率、強度等進行的不間斷的監(jiān)測評估是行為決策的基礎和前提。人體隨時隨地接受環(huán)境刺激信號,并把信號通過傳入神經(jīng)實時傳輸?shù)街袠猩窠?jīng),由中樞神經(jīng)對刺激進行感覺性評估和社會性評估。
感覺性評估是指對人體通過感覺器官和中樞神經(jīng)對體內(nèi)生理生化平衡變化(如酸堿平衡失調(diào)、營養(yǎng)素缺乏、高血糖等)、環(huán)境理化改變(如冷熱溫度、干濕度、堅硬度、尖銳度、柔軟度、酸甜苦辣味道、香臭氣味、顏色、亮度等的變化)等內(nèi)、外部刺激進行的感知和分析判斷,評估的結果包括飽腹/饑餓感、口渴感、疼痛感、溫暖/寒冷、舒適/難受、悅耳/刺耳、漂亮/丑陋、可口/難吃、甜/苦、香/臭等[15]。感覺性評估一般是在無意識的情況下,由人體感受器和中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)自動進行的。
社會性評估[16-17]是指個體在意識的控制下,通過比較、權衡、分析推理和歸納總結,對感覺性評估結果和外環(huán)境刺激(視聽覺信息等)進行評估,以做出是否采取行動或采取什么行動的決策。如個人會對饑餓感和進食沖動(感覺性評估結果)進行評估,如果做出應該立即進食的決策,就會繼而對食物的可獲得性、食品或餐飲廣告、餐廳、擺放在某處的食品(外環(huán)境刺激)分別進行評估,最終做出吃不吃、吃什么、怎么吃和在哪里吃的決定(社會性評估結果)。
為了做出行為決策,進而采取行動或改變自己的行為,個體主要會對內(nèi)、外部刺激的重要性、安全性威脅(危險性)、獲益性和個體所擁有的資源4個方面進行評估。
重要性評估是指人們關于內(nèi)、外部刺激對于自己來說是否重要的估計。既往的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),大腦腹內(nèi)側前額葉皮質(zhì)、眶額葉皮質(zhì)和腹側紋狀體負責對內(nèi)、外部刺激的價值性評估[18-20]。最新的研究認為,這種評估機制主要存在于丘腦室旁核(PVT)[21]。人們對環(huán)境刺激重要性的估計存在一定的規(guī)律。比如,人們在同時面對多種選擇時,總是先進行感覺性評估,然后再進行社會性評估,解決強烈的饑餓感、劇烈的疼痛、嚴重的口渴、緊急的生命威脅等問題,以及漂亮的外觀、好聞的味道、親近的關系等,總是比其他事項更重要;人們傾向于把能引起強烈感官反應的事物評估為更重要;人們習慣于認為遠水解不了近渴,更易于把在空間和時間上臨近的人和事物評估為重要[22]。
安全性評估是指對內(nèi)、外部刺激是否會對自己的生存、發(fā)展和生命安全構成威脅的估計。人有自我防御本能,很多行為都是直接或間接地為了使自己更安全[23]。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),人腦的下丘腦基底核(amygdala)、腹內(nèi)側前額葉皮質(zhì)(vmPFC)、背外側前額葉皮層(DLPFC)和前島葉(AI)負責個體對安全性/危險性的認知分析[24-28]。人體在受到內(nèi)、外部刺激,安全感受到嚴重威脅時,大腦顳葉海馬區(qū)會對刺激的性質(zhì)、種類、危險性進行快速評估,交感神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)快速啟動,做出是“戰(zhàn)斗還是逃跑”(fight or flight)的決策。同時,藍斑(LC)-交感-腎上腺髓質(zhì)軸和下丘腦-垂體-腎上腺皮質(zhì)軸(HPA)自動啟動[29-31],人體會出現(xiàn)心跳加速、呼吸增快、血糖和血脂增高等生理性行為的變化,以調(diào)動人體的能量,應對安全威脅,但可導致肌體耗能、組織分解、血管痙攣、組織缺血、致死性心律失常、高血壓、糖尿病等多種健康問題[32]。安全感受到持續(xù)性的嚴重威脅時,初期會出現(xiàn)焦慮、攻擊性或極端冒險性行為,最后會發(fā)展為抑郁、疲勞和衰竭,導致哮喘、胃潰瘍、糖尿病、心臟病、惡性腫瘤等[33]。可見,長期持續(xù)性的不安全感在慢性非傳染性疾病和感染性疾病的發(fā)生中扮演者重要的角色。
從社會認知層面,一般來說,人們傾向于認為未知或信息知之甚少的事物更危險;人們往往會把突然出現(xiàn)的外部刺激(如猛撲過來的惡犬)評估為更危險,而常常低估緩慢呈現(xiàn)或延遲出現(xiàn)的外部刺激的危險性,如10年后出現(xiàn)的癌癥、不戴安全帶有可能導致的車禍死亡、吸煙引起的癌癥死亡等;人們之所以傾向于模仿大多數(shù)人的行為[34-35],是因為認為大多數(shù)人的行為才是最安全的[36];人們總是認為別人開車打電話比自己開車打電話更危險;人之所以有嫉妒心理,是因為其他個體的優(yōu)秀和強大,有可能威脅到自身生存和發(fā)展的安全[37-38]。人們總是拒絕改變,因為改變現(xiàn)狀會帶來不安全感;但人們并非總是規(guī)避風險的,人們常常為了求得更大的安全感而甘愿冒險,正如中國成語所說:“不入虎穴,焉得虎子”。
獲益性評估是指人們對內(nèi)、外部刺激是否可為自身帶來益處所進行的評估。獲益包括生理上的滿足、物質(zhì)上的獲取或占有、精神心理上的愉悅、同伴或群體的認同或支持、家人和朋友的鼓勵、樂觀的預期、安全保障等[39]。研究表明,人腦中存在專門的對預期獎勵(獲益預期)進行評估的腦區(qū)——腹內(nèi)側前額葉皮質(zhì)(vmPFC)和腹側紋狀體(VSTR)[40],由其做出是否努力的決策。人們總是“無利不起早”,傾向于實施那些對自身有益或使自己獲益最大化的行為[41];人們總是傾向于買漲不買落[42];人傾向于把能使自己感官舒服的(止渴餓的、甜的、香的)、滿足生理需要的評估,認為是有益的;人們往往經(jīng)受不住大獎的誘惑,傾向于高估結局良好的小概率事件發(fā)生(如買獎券中大獎)的可能性[43]。值得注意的是,人們天生對損失更敏感,損失的痛苦常常大于獲益的快樂[44-45]。大腦的杏仁核專司個體的損失預期[46]。
資源是指個體可獲取的用于采取行動或改變行為的體力、精力、知識、技能、經(jīng)驗、環(huán)境條件、經(jīng)濟狀況、社會支持等,是促使行為產(chǎn)生和發(fā)展的保障[47]。一般來說,個人擁有的資源越多,自我評估的模式也會越積極,自我效能感越強,也越有可能采取某項行動或改變某個行為。但自我評估模式不僅受到個體擁有的資源情況的影響,還會受到遺傳、個性心理特征、情緒、情境、他人勸說等因素的影響。研究表明,大腦豆狀核(LN)負責自我效能評估[48]。
每個人都有自己特有的評估參照系[49-50]和評估框架[51],當接受到內(nèi)、外部刺激時,大腦相應功能區(qū)會把刺激的性質(zhì)、強度與參照系中的標準或閾值進行比較[52],做出評估。
個人對客觀事物進行評估的參照系基本結構和路徑與生俱來,持續(xù)終生。俗話說:江山易改,秉性難移。研究表明,人的大多數(shù)行為特征都具有高度的遺傳性,如人的利他性[53]和同情心[54],基因可解釋其遺傳差異的30%~50%[55]。表觀遺傳學認為,個體的祖輩或父輩的行為經(jīng)歷和自身從受精卵開始的經(jīng)歷,會通過染色體甲基化產(chǎn)生基因修飾,被作為遺傳印記,在后代身上表達出來[56-59]。
是指個體在自身特有的遺傳傾向性的基礎上融合自己和他人替代性經(jīng)驗而形成的個人價值體系。人們總是以自我為中心,根據(jù)自己的生理、心理和社會需要、親身經(jīng)歷和價值觀,對客觀事物做出評估[60]。如:利他主義者認為捐助慈善事業(yè)比自己消費更重要;環(huán)保主義者認為商品的環(huán)境友好性比舒適性更重要[61]。核心價值觀分為2個維度:一是自我提升/自我超越維度,即個體認為權力、成就、享樂重要,還是普救、慈善重要;二是開放/保守維度,即認為講求自主、追求刺激更重要,還是服從、傳統(tǒng)、安全更重要[62]。
群體規(guī)范是指一個群體或組織成文或不成文的、用以確定價值觀、信仰、態(tài)度和行為的規(guī)矩。文化、法律、宗教教規(guī)、風俗習慣等均屬于群體規(guī)范的表現(xiàn)形式。群體規(guī)范常成為群體內(nèi)個體對內(nèi)、外部刺激進行評估的重要參照標準[63]。人們常常聽從或參考他人的評估模式和評估結果(錨定效應)[64]或根據(jù)自認為的大多數(shù)人的意見做出評估[65]。
直覺是指不需進行邏輯推理而瞬間形成的信念或判斷[66]。人類的很多直覺源自情緒、情感(如同情、恐懼、嫉妒、快樂等)[67]和潛意識推斷[68]。在需要進行復雜評估、用于評估的信息不足而無法進行準確評估或需要緊急做出評估時,一般會進行直覺性評估[69],或根據(jù)自己的成見進行評估[70]。
一般來說,人們傾向于先進行感覺性評估,然后再根據(jù)自己的評估資源進行社會性評估。如人們雖然為了健康會控制進食甜食(社會性評估和決策),但誘人的甜食呈現(xiàn)在面前時,人們的唾液還是會禁不住奔涌而出(感覺性評估)[71]。令人愉快的外部刺激會通過人體感受器影響(“欺騙”)評估機制,從而使個體做出錯誤的行為決策。如甜食會使大腦產(chǎn)生愉快感,得出“應該多進食”的評估結論,導致甜食攝入過多,引發(fā)肥胖。
人們并非總是理性的,情緒和情感顯著影響評估的過程和評估結果[72-73]。如:在有關情況不確定、不可知的情況下,人們更傾向于根據(jù)自己的情感和情緒進行評估[74];人們傾向于以貌取人,把漂亮的、好看的、悅耳的、柔軟的、光滑的、溫暖的、明亮的事物評價為有益的(很多時候恰恰相反)。人們的情緒和情感會影響對行為結果好壞的預期[75]。人們在心情大好的情況下,往往傾向于把行為結果估計為良好。人在害怕時會高估風險,而在憤怒時會低估風險[76]。
情境是指不同個性心理特征的個體對環(huán)境的主觀感知和解釋[77]。
在不同的情境下,人們會對同一事物給出不同的評價結果[78]。如:在節(jié)日喜慶的氛圍中,人們更易于對事物給予積極正向的評估;而在悲傷低沉的氛圍中,則更傾向于對事物做出悲觀的估計。
人們可以通過學習提高評估能力(速度和準確度),也可經(jīng)過多次重復后成為經(jīng)驗,出現(xiàn)成熟,形成動力定型,即固定的評估模式。動態(tài)決策理論認為,人們可通過評估行為經(jīng)驗、結果、知識以及環(huán)境提示從而做出行為決策[79]。
根據(jù)本研究構建的理論,進行行為干預時,應幫助個體通過與其他行為的比較,認識到推薦行為的重要性優(yōu)先。通過與個體的討論,確認刺激的危險性以及推薦行為在增加安全性方面的意義;通過對推薦行為及行為結果的分析,幫助個體發(fā)現(xiàn)能獲得的益處;通過與個體討論,幫助其找出實施推薦行為所擁有的資源。但本理論是否可有效應用于行為干預,尚需進行實踐驗證。
人體通過感受器和中樞神經(jīng)對內(nèi)、外部刺激持續(xù)進行評估,并根據(jù)評估結果做出行為決策,進而產(chǎn)生生理反應或行為。行為結果作為反饋信息,供中樞神經(jīng)做出新的行為決策,形成“刺激-評估-決策循環(huán)-行為”循環(huán)。個體以基因遺傳、自我圖式、群體規(guī)范和直覺為參照系,對內(nèi)外刺激的重要性、獲益性、安全性和資源進行感覺性評估和社會性評估。評估會受到情感、情境和成熟因素的影響。進行行為干預時,應重點幫助個體發(fā)現(xiàn)和確認推薦行為的重要性、實施推薦行為可增加的安全感和益處以及其擁有的資源。本研究構建的理論有效性尚需進行實踐驗證。
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A Study on Construction of Assessment Theory on Behavioral Decision-making
An assessment theory on behavioral decision-making is constructed to lay a scientific basis for behavioral intervention by revealing the origin and intrinsic rule of generating, development and change of human behavior. The theory proposes that all human behavior is the individual's active coping response to an assessment of internal and external stimuli in order to survive and develop. An individual makes sensual and rational assessment on importance, security, benefits of internal and external stimuli, and resources that can be utilized to respond, based on the reference framework of genetic endowment, self-schema, group norms, and intuition. The assessment founds the premise for decision-making of/and physiological responses and behavior/action, and through the sensor, central nervous system and effector a “stimulation - assessment - decision-making-behavior” circulation is established. When conducting behavioral intervention, discussion and analysis with individuals should be conducted to help them identify the importance, increased security, gains, and resources possessed to perform the coping behaviors.
Stimulus; Sensual assessment; Rational assessment; Importance assessment; Gains assessment; Security assessment; Resource assessment; Reference framework
10.16117/j.cnki.31-1974/r.202002016
田向陽(1967—),男,主任醫(yī)師,主要從事健康教育與健康促進理論研究工作,healthtian@163.com。
2020-03-03。