理查德·英格拉姆(Richard Ingram) 伊恩·巴倫(Ian Barron)張驍?。ㄗg) 邢朝國(校)
社會工作的一項關鍵工作在于建立關系和運用同理心,在此背景下,考慮社工替代性創(chuàng)傷的普遍性及其影響變得尤為重要。盡管人們對實務過程中管理主義的主導地位和社工與服務對象關系的真誠性存在很多爭議,但很顯然,在社會工作實務經驗中,社工的人際層面和自我層面都是極為重要的。
服務關系的建立要求社工全身心地關注那些希望與其提升信任、理解和洞察力的服務對象,并與之建立真誠的聯(lián)系。這就要求社工用一種赫尼西(Hennessey. R)①Hennessey, R. Relationship skills in social work, London: Sage. 2011, p.8.所說的同理心的方式來開展工作,“一種在情感方面聆聽他人通過口頭語言和非口頭語言表達出的內容的方式,一種需要社工在與服務對象的關系之中投入自我的社工實務方式”。芬頓(Fenton.J)②Fenton, J. Values in social work: reconnecting with social justice. London: Palgrave. 2016.和英格拉姆(Ingram.R)③Ingram, R. Exploring emotions within formal and informal forums: messages from social work practitioners. British Journal of Social Work, 2013.45(3).也提出這種實務方式要求建立情感層面的聯(lián)系,社工要具備情感上的反身性,同時還要具備理解他人情感世界的意愿。雖然這有時看起來像是社會工作者理所當然的不可辯駁的特質,但這也可能顯露或引發(fā)社工個人的復雜情感。
情感聯(lián)結對社工實務而言是重要的,也是必不可少的,但這也會對社工產生潛在危害。情感聯(lián)結的影響是多變的、多方面的。“創(chuàng)傷事件”的本質可以是社工親眼目睹或親身參與的直接經驗,也可以是在與他人交談過程中得來的間接經驗。另外,這種“事件”可能是單一的,也可能是由創(chuàng)傷性反應引起的相關問題的集合。當把個人經歷、創(chuàng)傷歷史和用來處理不幸的彈性因素考慮在內時,情況就會變得更加多變。鑒于社工實務情境的豐富多樣性,把創(chuàng)傷作為一個重要議題來看待是至關重要的,以確保對創(chuàng)傷的警醒和預防。
麥卡恩(McCann.L)和皮爾曼(Pearlman.L)①McCann, L.and Pearlman, L. Vicarious traumatization: a framework for understanding the psychological effects of working with victims.Journal of Traumatic stress, 1990, 3(1): 131-149.最先界定了替代性創(chuàng)傷這一概念,那時人們普遍認為對創(chuàng)傷群體的研究有加劇創(chuàng)傷癥狀的風險。早期的研究聚焦于緊急救助和災難援助,然而,由于研究多是描述性的而非實證的,證據的質量受到了限制。②Sabin-Farrell, R. and Turpin, G. Vicarious traumatization: Implications for the mental health of workers. Clinical Psychology Review, 2003(23): 32-36.近期的替代性創(chuàng)傷研究更多是由專業(yè)人員開展的,如急救人員、災難援助人員、護士、醫(yī)生、藥劑師、記者和熱線工作人員。③Nimmo, A. and Huggard, P. A systematic review of the measurement of compassion fatigue, vicarious trauma, and secondary traumatic stress in physicians. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2013(1): 37-44.一些研究已經涉及與社工經驗相關的潛在性創(chuàng)傷,鑒于此,本文主要闡述替代性創(chuàng)傷的概念、不同職業(yè)群體的發(fā)病率、從業(yè)者患替代性創(chuàng)傷的風險以及預防。本文最后聚焦社工替代性創(chuàng)傷的最新研究。
在文獻綜述中,有一系列術語可以用來描述服務受創(chuàng)傷群體的專業(yè)人員的負面情緒,如繼發(fā)性創(chuàng)傷壓力、精疲力竭、替代性創(chuàng)傷和同情疲累。精疲力竭被認為是“情緒超負荷和情緒耗竭,以人格解體④人格解體是個體實際存在的普通感覺處于喪失的狀態(tài),表現(xiàn)為不現(xiàn)實或自我疏遠,不能控制自己的動作和言語的感覺——譯者注。、長期情緒緊張和個人成就感降低為特征”。另一方面,繼發(fā)性創(chuàng)傷壓力指的是“因了解到重要的人所經歷的創(chuàng)傷事件而引發(fā)的行為和情感,這是一種因幫助或希望幫助遭受了創(chuàng)傷或不幸的人而產生的壓力”。⑤Figley, C.R. Compassion fatigue: Toward a new understanding of the costs of caring. New York: Brunner/Mazel. 1995.相比之下,替代性創(chuàng)傷是一種更為嚴重的“因對案主‘創(chuàng)傷材料’的移情投入而引發(fā)的社工個人的內心體驗”。⑥Pearlman, L.A. and Saakvitne, K.W. Trauma and the therapist: Countertransference and vicarious traumatization in psychotherapy with incest survivors. New York: WW Norton & Co.1995.無論是在專業(yè)領域還是在個人生活領域,替代性創(chuàng)傷都是累積、持久和明顯的。替代性創(chuàng)傷也被視為同情疲累,指的是因卷入案主的創(chuàng)傷經歷而產生痛苦,進而導致專業(yè)人員在情感層面和認知層面出現(xiàn)反應能力下降的現(xiàn)象。⑦Boscarino, J.A., Figley, C.R. and Adams, R.E. Compassion fatigue following the September 11 terrorist attacks: A study of secondary trauma among New York City social workers. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 2004, 6(2): 57.雷(Ray, S.L)等人⑧Ray, S.L., Wong, C., White, D. and Heaslip, K. Compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, work life conditions, and burnout among frontline mental health care professionals. Traumatology, 2013, 19(4):255-267.強調,服務創(chuàng)傷患者的專業(yè)人員需要具備較高的護理水平,但也可能會引發(fā)他們生理層面和心理層面的同情疲累。杜波依斯(Dubois.A.L)⑨DuBois, A.L. An inquiry of the lived experiences and contextual understandings of early childhood special educators related to children's trauma. Duquesne University. 2010.指出,如果沒有注意到替代性創(chuàng)傷的癥狀,替代性創(chuàng)傷對人的心理健康產生的影響會是長期的。很明顯,回應這些困難且復雜的情感層面的實務問題,會使個別社工的健康受到嚴重損害,也會對從業(yè)者的功能和決策產生重大影響。
與此相反,有些研究者更加關注替代性創(chuàng)傷而非病理,關注什么是服務創(chuàng)傷群體之后引起的正常反應和預期反應。①Jenkins, S.R. and Baird, S.Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma: A validational study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2002, 15(5): 423-432. Bride, B.E. Prevalence of secondary traumatic stress among social workers. Social Work, 2007, 52(1): 63-70.另外,不是所有研究者都將替代性創(chuàng)傷簡單地看作是一種負面反應。阿諾德(Arnold.D)等②Arnold, D., Calhoun, L.G., Tedeschi, R., &Cann, A. Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth in Psychotherapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,2005(43): 239-263. Conrad, D. and Kellar-Guenther, Y. Compassion fatigue, burnout, and compassion satisfaction among Colorado child protection workers.Child Abuse & Neglect, 2006, 30(10):1071-1080.認為替代性創(chuàng)傷可能帶來替代性創(chuàng)傷后成長,它能夠提高專業(yè)人員的洞察力和意志力,比如,赫爾南德斯(Hernandez.P)等③Hernández, P., Gangsei, D., & Engstrom, D. Vicarious resilience: A new concept in work with those who survive trauma. Family Process,2007, 46(2): 229-241.把替代性創(chuàng)傷適應力描述為社工在服務創(chuàng)傷人群時表現(xiàn)出的忍耐力和恢復力的提高。這表明,替代性創(chuàng)傷可能是實務中建立的情感關系的惡性后果,但它本身是極有價值的,如果運用得當,可以提高社工的實務能力。
學者們研究不同職業(yè)領域中替代性創(chuàng)傷的性質和范圍。范斯坦(Feinstein.A)等④Feinstein, A., Owen, J. and Blair, N. A hazardous profession: war, journalists, and psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 2002, 159(9): 1570-1575.發(fā)現(xiàn)近1/5的戰(zhàn)地記者都有抑郁癥狀,他們大多用酒精進行自我治療。同樣程度的繼發(fā)性創(chuàng)傷壓力也出現(xiàn)在服務精神病患者的工作人員身上。⑤Kulka, R.A., Schlenger, W.E., Fairbank, J.A., Hough, R.L., Jordan, B.K., Marmar, C.R. and Weiss, D.S. Trauma and the Vietnam war generation: Report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. NewYork:Brunner/Mazel.1990.法拉(Farrar AR)⑥Farrar AR: Vicarious Traumatization MentalHealth Professional. APAGS Newsletter. 2002.發(fā)現(xiàn)10%的災難救援人員都表現(xiàn)出替代性創(chuàng)傷癥狀。同樣地,12%的急救服務人員都經歷過臨床水平的創(chuàng)傷后應激障礙。⑦Van Der Ploeg, E. and Kleber, R.J. Acute and chronic job stressors among ambulance personnel: predictors of health symptoms. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 2003, 60(1): 140-146.與心理治療師相比,警察的創(chuàng)傷性應激障礙癥狀要更明顯一些。⑧Follette, V.M., Polusny, M.M. and Milbeck, K. Mental health and law enforcement professionals: Trauma history, psychological symptoms, and impact of providing services to child sexual abuse survivors. Professional psychology: Research and practice, 1994, 25(3): 275.目前少量的研究對社會工作者的替代性創(chuàng)傷進行評估。梅爾德倫(Meldrum.L)⑨Meldrum, L., King, R. and Spooner, D. Secondary traumatic stress in case managers working in community mental health services. In: Figley C.R,(Ed). Treating compassion fatigue. New York, NY: Routledge. 2002: 85-106.發(fā)現(xiàn)澳大利亞的社區(qū)心理輔導人員,包括社會工作者在內,都經歷過繼發(fā)性創(chuàng)傷障礙,一直從事創(chuàng)傷人群服務會使社工變得習慣和麻木,這反過來會導致社工在情感上更為脆弱。⑩Glover, H. Emotional numbing: A possible endorphin-mediated phenomenon associated with post-traumatic stress disorders and other allied psychopathologic states. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1992, 5(4):643-675.布萊德(Bride.B.E)①Jenkins, S.R. and Baird, S.Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma: A validational study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2002, 15(5): 423-432. Bride, B.E. Prevalence of secondary traumatic stress among social workers. Social Work, 2007, 52(1): 63-70.對282名碩士學位層次的社會工作者進行了繼發(fā)性創(chuàng)傷壓力調查,結果顯示,他們之中有28%的社工有輕生的念頭,25%的社工表現(xiàn)出情感麻木,14%的社工沒法回想起服務案主的過程,還有5%的人從他們所經歷的創(chuàng)傷中恢復過來。康拉德(Conrad.D)和凱勒(Kellar-Guenthar.Y)②Arnold, D., Calhoun, L.G., Tedeschi, R., &Cann, A. Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth in Psychotherapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology,2005(43): 239-263. Conrad, D. and Kellar-Guenther, Y. Compassion fatigue, burnout, and compassion satisfaction among Colorado child protection workers.Child Abuse & Neglect, 2006, 30(10):1071-1080.發(fā)現(xiàn)在科羅拉多州的363名兒童保護工作者(也是社會工作者)中,有約一半的人經歷過同情疲累,然而,他們中的70%仍然有較高的職業(yè)滿意度。
替代性創(chuàng)傷的風險因素一方面包含了專業(yè)同理①Wasco, S.M., Campbell, R. and Clark, M. A Multiple Case Study of Rape Victim Advocates' Self-Care Routines: The Influence of Organizational Context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 2002, 30(5): 731-760.iMorrison, Z. 'Feeling Heavy': Vicarious Trauma and Other Issues Facing Those who Work in the Sexual Assault Field. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007(4): 1-13.,另一方面又包含了與創(chuàng)傷患者或創(chuàng)傷資料的長期接觸。②Dunkley, J. and Whelan, T.A. Vicarious traumatisation: Current status and future directions. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 2006,34(1): 107-116.Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2006, 6(1): 1.例如,專業(yè)人員通過反思自己的悲傷、恐懼和其他強烈的情緒來適應創(chuàng)傷者的痛苦,這就會在個人層面影響到專業(yè)人員。看令人震驚的圖片、聆聽和目睹服務對象支離破碎的信仰,這可能會導致服務者的自我認同、世界觀和精神發(fā)生變化。③Janoff-Bulman, R. Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: The Free Press. 1992; Cunningham, M. Impact of trauma work on social work clinicians: Empirical findings. Social Work, 2003, 48(4): 451-459.Iliffe, G. and Steed, L.G. Exploring the counselor's experience of working with perpetrators and survivors of domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2000, 15(4): 393-412.就服務者自身創(chuàng)傷經歷對其替代性創(chuàng)傷形成的影響而言,相關證據是混亂的。④Morrison, Z. 'Feeling Heavy': Vicarious Trauma and Other Issues Facing Those who Work in the Sexual Assault Field. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007(4): 1-13.DeAngelis, T. Normalizing practitioners’ stress. Monitor on Psychology, 2002: 7.鮑勃(Bober.T)和雷格爾(Regehr.C)認為有創(chuàng)傷病史并且仍在服務創(chuàng)傷人群的社工應該尋求支持,以在早期階段對這些創(chuàng)傷病史進行反思和討論。⑤Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2006, 6(1): 1.
替代性創(chuàng)傷的一個風險因素是專業(yè)人員所服務個案的創(chuàng)傷程度。在工作中,更多地接觸性虐待個案的專業(yè)人員⑥Schauben, L.J. and Frazier, P.A. Vicarious trauma the effects on female counselors of working with sexual violence survivors. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19951, 9(1): 49-64.,尤其是在接觸兒童性虐待⑦Cunningham, M. Impact of trauma work on social work clinicians: Empirical findings. Social Work, 2003, 48(4): 451-459.、性犯罪者⑧Moulden, H.M. and Firestone, P. Vicarious traumatization: The impact on therapists who work with sexual offenders. Trauma, Violence, &Abuse, 2007, 8(1): 67-83.或曾有過創(chuàng)傷經歷的案主時,專業(yè)人員患替代性創(chuàng)傷的幾率更高。服務創(chuàng)傷個體的時間長短是預測替代性創(chuàng)傷的因素。⑨Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2006, 6(1): 1.但是貝爾德和詹金斯發(fā)現(xiàn)從業(yè)者的精神痛苦與其服務的創(chuàng)傷個數(shù)之間無相關性。⑩Baird, S. and Jenkins, S.R. Vicarious traumatization, secondary traumatic stress, and burnout in sexual assault and domestic violence agency staff. Violence and Victims, 2003, 18(1): 71.有關專業(yè)人士從業(yè)年限的研究也提供了一些相反的證據。①Wasco, S.M., Campbell, R. and Clark, M. A Multiple Case Study of Rape Victim Advocates' Self-Care Routines: The Influence of Organizational Context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 2002, 30(5): 731-760.iMorrison, Z. 'Feeling Heavy': Vicarious Trauma and Other Issues Facing Those who Work in the Sexual Assault Field. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007(4): 1-13.鮑勃和雷格爾發(fā)現(xiàn)工作年限與對親密關系的消極信念呈正相關。②Dunkley, J. and Whelan, T.A. Vicarious traumatisation: Current status and future directions. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 2006,34(1): 107-116.Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 2006, 6(1): 1.與此相反,艾利夫(Iliffe.G)和斯蒂德(Steed.L.G)③Janoff-Bulman, R. Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: The Free Press. 1992; Cunningham, M. Impact of trauma work on social work clinicians: Empirical findings. Social Work, 2003, 48(4): 451-459.Iliffe, G. and Steed, L.G. Exploring the counselor's experience of working with perpetrators and survivors of domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2000, 15(4): 393-412.發(fā)現(xiàn)服務家庭暴力的社工很難有替代性創(chuàng)傷的征兆,因為隨著時間的增長,他們早已對此習以為常。另外,德安吉利斯(DeAngelis.T)④Morrison, Z. 'Feeling Heavy': Vicarious Trauma and Other Issues Facing Those who Work in the Sexual Assault Field. Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2007(4): 1-13.DeAngelis, T. Normalizing practitioners’ stress. Monitor on Psychology, 2002: 7.提出,替代性創(chuàng)傷的風險在于沒有認識到專業(yè)人員因服務痛苦情緒的案主而產生的情緒波動。
在組織層面也已經確認了一系列風險因素。非支持性管理、低薪資水平和提供服務的挑戰(zhàn)都是精疲力竭率較高的預測因素。①Bell, H., Kulkarni, S. and Dalton, L. Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 2003, 84(4): 463-470.Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention,2006, 6(1): 1.鮑勃和雷格爾②Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention,2006, 6(1): 1.確認了組織因素的影響,反對把討論重點放在專業(yè)性應對策略上,因為這可能會導致把替代性創(chuàng)傷的發(fā)生歸責于個人,從而導致專業(yè)人士更不可能主動尋求幫助。
一系列保護因素都可以用來預防替代性創(chuàng)傷。埃德爾森(Eidelson.R.J)③Eidelson, R.J., D'alessio, G.R. and Eidelson, J.I. The impact of September 11 on psychologists. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 2003, 34(2): 144.和他的同事認為高度的使命感是一種可以預防替代性創(chuàng)傷的保護因素,對于志愿者來說尤其適用。受過良好訓練的專業(yè)人員,尤其是接受過創(chuàng)傷知情方面訓練的專業(yè)人員和有穩(wěn)定的高質量的督導的專業(yè)人員,知道如何更好地預計和處理替代性創(chuàng)傷。④Barron, I., Abdallah, G. and Heltne, U. Randomized control trial of Teaching Recovery Techniques in rural occupied Palestine: effect on adolescent dissociation. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 2006, 25(9): 955-973.
自我關懷、自我培養(yǎng)、身體健康、休閑活動以及知道何時應該尋求幫助都是有助于降低替代性創(chuàng)傷風險的因素。保持工作之外的興趣愛好可以降低專業(yè)人員的壓力水平,有計劃的休息和調整能夠為專業(yè)人士灌輸希望、明晰生活和工作的界限,這些都可以增加專業(yè)人士的適應力。⑤Bell, H., Kulkarni, S. and Dalton, L. Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 2003, 84(4): 463-470.自我關懷的關鍵在于:改變社工對自己經歷的看法,把緊張的情緒表達出來,了解自己的身體和生理感覺,與別人進行心靈交流,獲得家庭支持,參加娛樂活動。社工還需要避免在工作之余接觸創(chuàng)傷資料,比如創(chuàng)傷的電影和書籍。⑥Wasco, S.M. and Campbell, R. Emotional reactions of rape victim advocates: A multiple case study of anger and fear. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2002(26): 120-130.
很重要的一點是,若預防的責任完全落在個人身上,可能會使個體從業(yè)者遭受成為“問題人”的病態(tài)化風險。例如,有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),組織層面的支持有助于促進工作人員給遭受性侵害者提供持久的服務。⑦Wasco, S.M., Campbell, R. and Clark, M. A Multiple Case Study of Rape Victim Advocates' Self-Care Routines: The Influence of Organizational Context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 2002, 30(5): 731-760.支持性的組織環(huán)境包括工作之余的空間、持續(xù)的專業(yè)提升和專業(yè)督導。⑧Bell, H., Kulkarni, S. and Dalton, L. Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 2003, 84(4): 463-470.替代性創(chuàng)傷被視為一種職業(yè)風險,因此社工應當有機會去宣泄和訴說自己的創(chuàng)傷經歷。⑨Wasco, S.M. and Campbell, R. Emotional reactions of rape victim advocates: A multiple case study of anger and fear. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2002(26): 120-130.莫里森(Morrison.T)⑩Morrison, T. Emotional Intelligence, Emotion and Social Work: Context, Characteristics, Complications and Contribution. The British Journal of Social Work, 2007(37): 245-263.強調了工作場所的政策是怎樣提升或抑制了這些因素。鮑勃和雷格爾①Bell, H., Kulkarni, S. and Dalton, L. Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 2003, 84(4): 463-470.Bober, T. and Regehr, C. Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work? Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention,2006, 6(1): 1.指出預防替代性創(chuàng)傷的重點是機構提供具有安全性和支持性的工作環(huán)境。
盡管替代性創(chuàng)傷在社會工作者中的潛在發(fā)生率較高,但是應只有少量文獻明確探討了這一議題。考克斯(Cox.K)和斯坦納(Steiner.S)①Cox, K., amd Steiner, S. Preserving commitment to social work service through the prevention of vicarious trauma. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 2013, 10(1): 52-60.探討了社工應對替代性創(chuàng)傷的策略,這些策略可以緩解替代性創(chuàng)傷的癥狀、減輕替代性創(chuàng)傷的影響,他們強調接觸創(chuàng)傷事件和創(chuàng)傷資料會使社工產生自我懷疑感和憤怒感。齊格弗里德(Siegfried.)②Siegfried, C. Child Welfare Work and Secondary Traumatic Stress. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 2008.也再次確認了與繼發(fā)性創(chuàng)傷壓力有關的癥狀,提出同理心是一種關鍵性風險因素,因為它使社工暴露在案主的創(chuàng)傷事件和敘述中,導致社工士氣低落、健康不佳、缺席會談。尼莫(Nimmo.A)和哈格德(Haggard.P)③Nimmo, A. and Huggard, P. A systematic review of the measurement of compassionfatigue, vicarious trauma, and secondary traumatic stress in physicians. Australasian Journalof Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2013, 2013(1): 37-44.在文獻綜述中比較了同情疲勞、繼發(fā)性創(chuàng)傷壓力和替代性創(chuàng)傷,特別強調了替代性創(chuàng)傷與實務中常見的復雜情感反應不同,并提出了它們相似的癥狀可能會使人們難以意識到替代性創(chuàng)傷的出現(xiàn)。烏略亞(Ulloa.I)和羅斯(Rose.J)④Ulloa, I,. and Rose, J. Perceptions of social worker professionals with regards to the prevalence of vicarious trauma among social workers in the child welfare field. California State University.2011.關注兒童福利工作者對替代性創(chuàng)傷流行程度的認知,并歸納了替代性創(chuàng)傷的影響,如健忘、攻擊性、夢魘、疲勞、動機缺乏和頭痛。
雖然替代性創(chuàng)傷對社工個人的影響是非常明顯和深刻的,但是對社工的替代性創(chuàng)傷也有一些有效的支持。英格拉姆(Ingram.R)⑤Ingram, R, Exploring Emotions within Formal and Informal Forums: Messages from Social Work Practitioners. The British Journal of Social Work, 2015, 45(3): 896-913,提到,在情感支持和情感反應方面,督導可以起到廣泛的治療作用。曼寧·瓊斯(Manning-Jones.S)等⑥Manning-Jones, S., Terte, I., and Stephens, C. Vicarious posttraumatic growth: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2015, 5(2): 125-139.提出督導可以減輕與替代性創(chuàng)傷有關的孤立感和其他嚴重的負面情緒。齊格弗里德⑦Siegfried, C. Child Welfare Work and Secondary Traumatic Stress. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 2008.也承認在治療方面,督導起到了至關重要的作用,但同時也提出了更多建議和策略以強調在不同領域給予社工支持的必要性:(1)職業(yè)層面:服務的個案數(shù)和常規(guī)的高質量督導;(2)機構層面:定期休息、年假以及來自同事的支持;(3)個人層面:自我關懷(健康、鍛煉、反思和精神活動)以及保持工作和生活平衡的能力;(4)應對策略:對實務的情感層面進行自我反思。
曼寧·瓊斯等⑧Manning-Jones, S., Terte, I., and Stephens, C. Vicarious posttraumatic growth: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2015, 5(2): 125-139.對多個領域的替代性創(chuàng)傷后成長進行了文獻梳理,如社會工作、心理治療、葬禮主持和醫(yī)務人員。齊格弗里德指出,通過反思和自我關懷,社工有機會辨識自己的優(yōu)勢,幫助別人獲得希望。斯普萊文斯(Splevins.K)等⑨Splevins K, Mireskandari S, Clayton K, Blaszczynski A: Prevalence of adolescent problem gambling, related harms and help-seeking behaviors among an Australian population. Journal of Gambling Studies. 2010,( 26): 189-204.提出,如果同理心能夠用來突出我們自己的優(yōu)勢,進而成為未來實務工作的動力,那么同理心實際上就成為了一個保護性因素。⑩Cox, K., amd Steiner, S. Preserving commitment to social work service through the prevention of vicarious trauma. Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, 2013, 10(1): 52-60.另外,巴林頓(Barrington.A.J)和莎士比亞·芬奇(Shakespeare-Finch.J)①Barrington, A. J., & Shakespeare-Finch, J. Working with refugee survivors of torture and trauma: an opportunity for vicarious posttraumatic growth. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 2013, 26(1): 89-105.以及烏達克(Hudek.C)②Hudek, C. Dealing with vicarious trauma in the context of global fear. The Folio, 2007, p95-101.注意到社工與服務對象之間的關系質量可以作為社工在創(chuàng)傷事件后獲得康復和成長能力的標識,他們認為這是正能量和支持的來源。
社工在工作中經常接觸有過創(chuàng)傷經歷的案主,并且要在同理心關系中把這些創(chuàng)傷事件表達出來。出于實務工作的需要,社工應該獲得支持和機會去反思和處理他們實務中的情感內容。③Ruch, G. The contemporary context of relationship based practice. In Ruch, G., Turney, D. & Ward, A.(Eds.) Relationship based social work: getting to the heart ofpractice.London:Jessica Kingsley. 2010.督導就是一種可以提供這樣支持的重要形式,它需要識別由實務引起的有意或無意的情緒活動和情緒反應,這對提升社工決的策質量和幸福感起著重要作用。④Hair, H. The Purpose and Duration of Supervision, and the Training and Discipline of Supervisors: What Social Workers Say They Need to Provide Effective Services. British Journal of Social Work, 2012, 43(8): 1562-1588.這就要求督導通過“消極感受力”過程來“把握”社工,在這個過程中,實務中復雜而未解決的情感問題被允許和合法化,而不是暫時擱置或草草解決。
柯林斯(Collins.S)⑤Collins, S. Social workers, resilience, positive emotions and optimism. Practice, 2007, 19(4): 255-269.提醒我們,在復雜的實務環(huán)境中,社會工作者處理問題、得到成長的抗逆力與社工的樂觀態(tài)度以及進行反思的動機密不可分。這些樂觀態(tài)度和反思動機為社工自身提供了部分保護因素,使社工努力與希望、自豪和自省等積極情緒聯(lián)系起來,這正是社工解決棘手問題、得到解決方案和把握機遇所需要的。杜牙地(Tugade.M.M)和弗雷德里克森(Frederickson.B.L)⑥Tugade, M.M& Frederickson, B.L. Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal Personality and Social Psychology, 2004, p320-333.提出這些屬性可以提高創(chuàng)造力和注意力,但是社工需要依靠組織結構和組織支持來提升這些屬性。
社會工作作為一種職業(yè),需要對替代性創(chuàng)傷卷入有明確認知,需要采取措施以落實必要的支持來預防替代性創(chuàng)傷或適當控制其影響。在實務過程中,社工產生情感反應和情感聯(lián)結是不可避免的,這在決策制定、關系建立和評估方面都是至關重要的。這種情感知覺使得社工能夠在不同領域中做出判斷。例如,只有當社工可以利用他的經驗、知識和情感反應去確定“公正”的界限,對“公正”形成理解,他對社會公正的追求才是有意義的。如果我們認同在社會工作領域的諸多情境中,實務工作的人際層面和自我層面都是至關重要的,那么有關同理心和情感聯(lián)結的風險和機遇都是不可避免的。
這就引出了職業(yè)認同的概念,雖然這一點在職業(yè)規(guī)范、職業(yè)標準和專業(yè)知識中也有所表現(xiàn),⑦Ingram, R. Understanding Emotions in Social Work: theory, practice and reflection. Maidenhead: Open University Press,2015.但是它也存在于“自我意識”之中。⑧Ibarra, H. Provisional selves: Experimenting with image and identity in professionaladaptation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1999, 44(4): 764-791.這種“自我意識”植根于個人或職業(yè)的道德、知識、角色和經歷中。既然社會工作者與創(chuàng)傷事件的接觸難以避免,我們要做的不是逃避創(chuàng)傷,而是要認識創(chuàng)傷并加強對它的安全防范和警惕。誠然,對于社工來說,創(chuàng)傷的觸發(fā)和閾值是難以估摸的,這更加突顯了社工職業(yè)認同的必要性,而這種認同包含了每個社工在實務中的體驗和經歷。
圖1 一種系統(tǒng)的情感卷入性實務方法與替代性創(chuàng)傷
圖1從預防、應對、干預三個關鍵階段構建了替代性創(chuàng)傷的防治模式。需要強調的是,個人層面、組織層面與專業(yè)層面在每個階段的行為都不同,但它們可以互補。在每個階段中,不同層面之間都存在聯(lián)系。
本文強調,在社會工作中,需要在承認實務中情感卷入的重要性與對替代性創(chuàng)傷的跡象和影響有所警覺之間保持平衡。這是一個復雜的過程,它會受到充滿相互作用的環(huán)境的影響,包括創(chuàng)傷顯露的程度和性質,社會工作者的知識、技巧和態(tài)度,組織文化和組織支持,對服務對象情感卷入的職業(yè)期望等。本文為專業(yè)社工、社工機構和社工職業(yè)提供了一個模式,幫助其面對替代性創(chuàng)傷的挑戰(zhàn)。作者認為,該模式可適用于國內外的諸多職業(yè)。
1.社會工作者與服務對象之間的情感聯(lián)結為社工的專業(yè)判斷提供了重要信息(替代性創(chuàng)傷的風險與情感顯露的平衡)。
2.社會工作者應當接受有關創(chuàng)傷知識的專業(yè)訓練,使他們更好地理解服務群體和自身反應。
3.替代性創(chuàng)傷需要被納入社會工作者的風險因素,社工所在組織更應該承認這一點。
4.社工組織需要對模式的使用進行探索,建立組織文化,提供實務支持,保護社會工作者。
需要在以下幾個方面進行實證研究:
1.評估模式應用于社工組織和類似職業(yè)的有效性。
2.識別社會工作者患替代性創(chuàng)傷的性質和程度。
3.對社會工作實務的情感維度進行定性研究。
4.對國際社會工作實務的情感維度進行跨文化分析。
Social Work and Vicarious Trauma: Risks and Opportunities of Emotional Engagement Richard Ingram, Ian Barron
Abstract: The current paper aims to encourage discussion of the potential impact of vicarious trauma for social workers.The paper locates this knowledge in the context of relationship based practice and the significance of emotional engagement and exposure across practice contexts. The paper draws from literature specific to the social work profession as well as other human services in a range of international contexts. Implications are explored for prevention, ways of coping, and intervention of vicarious trauma at the level of practitioners, services and the social work profession. The key finding from this paper is that there is a balance to be struck between acknowledging the importance of emotional engagement in social work practice and the need for awareness of signs and impact of various trauma. A model is provided to enable practitioners, organisations and the social work profession to address the emotional dimensions of social work practice within contexts of vicarious trauma. This model is applicable to social workers in national and international contexts. Recommendations for practice suggest a range of opportunities to manage the aforementioned balancing act through awareness training, supervision, self-care, organisational culture and personal/professional identity.Recommendations are made future research including assessing the nature and extent of traumatisation of social workers and strategies for prevention, coping and intervention.
Keywords: vicarious trauma; emotions; social work; professionalism; supervision