奧焱坤++張媛媛

【Abstract】Since both translation and rhetoric are aimed to achieve effective communication through language tools， it is a good way to borrow rhetorical theories and resources to polish translation. Translatology and rhetoric have long enjoyed academic attention， while the discipline of translation rhetoric is at the infant stage and calls for further research. Through analyzing the English and Chinese versions of Imperial Peking， written by Lin Yutang， at the levels of figures of speech， text structure and language style， this paper is aimed to have an in-depth understanding of expression differences between English and Chinese， and to throw light in how to talk about Chinese culture in better English.

【Key words】translation studies； rhetoric； Imperial Peking

Translation involves not only languages， but also other subjects such as linguistics， literature and psychology. Its combined development with other subjects has constantly injected fresh blood into translation studies. Similarly， rhetoric also focuses on language use and how to achieve more effective communication through language tools. In this sense， it is inspiring and meaningful to approach translation studies from the perspective of rhetoric. In this paper， the author bases the analysis of texts on the theoretical framework of translation rhetoric， and aims to better understand how the same meanings are delivered with different expressions in Chinese and English.

I. Literature Review

1. Research of Translation Rhetoric Abroad

Both translation and rhetoric have long been studied and discussed in western academic world. Eugene A. Nida mentioned in Meaning Across Cultures that translators need to pay attention to rhetorical features and transfer them into equally dramatic expressions in target language. Rather than simply paraphrasing them in dull language， good translators are supposed to make up for the loss of rhetorical effects at one place by adopting other techniques in other sentences， so as to create similar literary effects in his/her translation （Nida 1981）.

According to Peter Newmark， various beautiful rhetorical expressions in source text could hardly be moved into target language. Translators need to use compensation methods to translate such literary devices as onomatopoeia， alliteration and end rhyme. He also argued that there are inevitable conflicts between faithfulness and beauty in translating， especially in poem translation （Newmark 1988）.

Rhetoric is a time-honored discipline in western world and there has been a great tradition of adopting rhetoric in debates and speeches. However， there have not been systemic studies about translation rhetoric， though many scholars have noticed the close relationship between translation studies and rhetoric.

2. Research of Translation Rhetoric at Home

China also has a good tradition of studying rhetoric and has accumulated many rhetorical ways throughout the long history， of which Chinese poems are a strong proof. Translatology is not a new subject in China for translation practice started rather early and has enjoyed a rapid growth in modern times.

In China， interdisciplinary research about the translation and rhetoric has mostly been focused on translating techniques of figures of speech. Comparison and Translation of Rhetoric in English and Chinese was the first book to study the relationship between rhetoric and translation in a systemic way. The author of the book listed various ways to translate figures of speech based on experiences （Yu 1985）. Chen stated in the book English Rhetoric and Translation that English is different from Chinese in terms of how to use rhetorical tools and persuade readers. The book also summarized several tips for translators in dealing with English rhetoric （Chen 1990）. Later on， some scholars and papers also discussed about this problem from other perspectives. Hu Guming applied textual rhetoric theories to analyze the four translation versions of Anna Karenina with a focus on the translation of prose parts in this novel （Hu 2004）. In 2009， Chang studied the relationship between translation and rhetoric at levels of grammar， lexical choice and sentence structure. He put his emphasis on adopting rhetorical methods in translation from the aspects of syntax and text （Chang 2009）.

The idea to establish the discipline of translation rhetoric was first put forward by Yang Lili in 2001. In his paper， Yang concluded what had been done in the studies of translation and its combination with rhetoric， and proposed to establish translation rhetoric as an independent subject. In addition， he also made it clear about the research scope， research object， methodology and problems to be solved in this new field （Yang 2001）. From then on， studies about translation rhetoric have begun to cover more than translation techniques of figures of speech， but also styles and structures of the translated versions.

Since the concept of translation rhetoric was put forward， more research has been done in this field. Though more and more papers talk about the combination of translation studies and rhetoric， few have discussed the establishment of translation rhetoric. In 2011， Chen talked about the necessity to analyze translation from the perspective of new rhetoric in his doctoral dissertation， and took examples to show that rhetorical devices and choice of language greatly determine the translation quality， and would also influence the readers reaction in target language and culture （Chen 2011）. In 2012， Feng listed important topics of this discipline in his paper， such as translation of style， rhetoric ability and translation teaching， etc. This paper has pointed the direction for further development of this discipline （Feng 2012）. Later， Liu said in his paper that translation is in nature a special activity of rhetoric， the difference is that it uses rhetorical devices across different cultures， while rhetoric is applied within one language and culture （Liu 2014）. In 2016， Feng further developed the discipline by stating eight research dimensions and directions in this field， which gave a clear clue for scholars to do further studies （Feng 2016）.

Young the discipline may be， translation rhetoric is of great importance to study classical translation works. Both translation and rhetoric put language as their tools and effective communication as their goal， thus how to organize language turns out to be their common concern.

3. Writing and Translation Style of Lin Yutang

Lin Yutang is a well-known bilingual writer， literary translator and knowledgeable linguist. Lin Yutang has marvelous insight into cross-cultural interaction and his way of spreading Chinese culture is quite unique， attracting scholars worldwide to appreciate his masterpieces（Zhou 2004）.

Lin has written most of his works in both Chinese and English. From his perspective， translation is not simply a process of translating one language to another， but a way of re-expressing and re-organizing the original text. English readers at Lins time usually knew little about Chinese culture， thus Lin used a reader-oriented way to make the cross-cultural communication easier and smoother.

In general， Lins dialogue awareness includes： first， the dialogue of civilization between the East and the West. Interpretation of cultural background is a kind of cultural dialogue awareness to bridge the gap between the East and the West. Second， the dialogue between the ancient society and the modern world. Lin values dialogues made across time and space. Third， the dialogue between “me” and “others”. The confirmation and identity of “me” cannot be realized without the reference of “others” （Ren，Bian 2014）.

Lin attached great significance to text readability， thus he talked about Chinese culture by using simple language while trying to keep the original flavor of Chinese culture. He has created a number of English novels， such as My Country and My People， Moment in Peking， and Six Chapters of a Floating Life. His contributions of spreading Chinese culture to the English world are of great significance， yet among all his works， the book Imperial Peking has seldom been studied. It is a book covering almost all aspects of Peking， and inspires translators in how to tell Chinese stories in better English， thus this paper is going to focus on analysis of this book.

II. Text Analysis

Skilled use of rhetorical tools could easily be found in classical works. Through the test of time， the great works are still set as examples these days， one of the most important reason is that those excellent writers created excellent artistic use of language， that is the rhetorical tools. Great works belong to the whole world， and numerous classical books have been translated into various foreign languages. Successful translation could always embark similar aesthetic pleasure among target readers as the original text does. Since different cultures have different expression ways， translators shall not translate word for word； instead， excellent translators are good at adopting different measures in accordance with different contexts. Thus it is necessary to study classical works from the perspective of translation rhetoric.

In this paper， the author is going to analyze the book Imperial Peking written by Lin Yutang from the perspective of translation rhetoric in terms of figures of speech， text structure and cultural rhetoric.

1. Figures of Speech

A. Analogy

In the book Imperial Peking， Lin adopted various figures of speech and told stories about this city in a vivid way. Throughout the book， analogy is the most frequently used way to connect the Chinese culture with western civilization. By doing so， the writer successfully shortens the distance between the text and readers， and readers from the English world could be more easily attracted to start reading the text. Some examples of analogy from the book are as follows.

In Chapter Seven， Lin talks about studies of art form from the perspectives of temples and pagodas in Peking. In the English version， he puts it this way “This is perhaps the worlds finest architectural tribute to the spirit of nature， worship， and unlike the graceful pavilions， the Temple of Heaven truly inspires as Gothic cathedrals inspire”. In the Chinese version， he said “天壇與哥特式大教堂一樣，真正能讓人體察到神靈的啟示”. Readers from the English world may not know the function and meaning of the Temple of Heaven， but things get easier when they see it is similar to Gothic cathedrals.

Talking about singsong girls， Lin compares them with those in Japan and Greece. The two versions are “These singsong artists form a distinct class and are not to be compared with common prostitutes. Their function and training are similar to those of Japanese geishas. They are entertainers. ... These girls were sent to grace a public dinner， like the Greek courtesans in Socrates day. ” and “這些歌妓與普通的妓女不同，她們形成了一個(gè)獨(dú)特的階層。她們的教養(yǎng)與日本的藝妓相似，純屬演員，擅長(zhǎng)歌舞……這些女子與蘇格拉底時(shí)代的希臘交際花相似，通常被請(qǐng)來(lái)為宴會(huì)增色”. This is a cultural phenomenon that may sound unfamiliar to English readers， thus Lin found a similar phenomenon from other cultures， providing a vivid image for his readers.

In talking about Chinese bronzes， Lin compares the function of them to western crowns. In English， it is “Like the western crown， orb， scepter and seals， the bronzes were often the symbols of power as well as of wealth. ” Correspondingly， In Chinese， it is “我們知道這些器皿代表了多么顯赫的聲望。正像西方的王冠，象征王位的頂飾十字架的圓球，節(jié)杖和御璽一樣，青銅制品也經(jīng)常被當(dāng)做權(quán)利與財(cái)富的象征”.

B. Other Figures of Speech

In this book， Lin also adopts other figures of speech to make the language more vivid and appealing， for instance， personification and contrast.

Lin describes the characteristics of Peking in a vivid manner by personifying the objects. In the English version， he says “The Peking weather always seems to make up its mind decisively， usually in favor of sunshine； dry in winter， wet in summer”. The phrase “make up its mind” can only be used in describing humans， yet Lin personifies the weather as a person who can make decisions， which makes the whole sentence full of vitality. In the Chinese version， he says “北京的氣候似乎打定了主意要一成不變，通常它總是陽(yáng)光明媚。冬季干燥，夏季濕潤(rùn)”.

Furthermore， Lin adopts contrasts in his description. He says “Its true that in Peking one revels in the blue of the sky but eats the dust of the earth.‘On a windless day there are three inches of dust， and on a rainy day there is mud all over the ground， says a proverb.” In the Chinese version， he says “在北京，人們既得享碧藍(lán)的天空，又不得不吸食塵土。俗話(huà)說(shuō)無(wú)風(fēng)三寸土，雨天滿(mǎn)地泥?！?Lin wants to describe the picture of Peking by making a sharp contrast between blue sky and the dust of the earth. By using various figures of speech， Lin makes his description more vivid and familiar to readers from the English world， thus increasing the readability of the text in the target culture.

2. Text Structure

Rhetoric is not only about words， but also about how to organize sentences and paragraphs. In Lins book， he applied different ways in organizing texts according to different writing and reading habits in Chinese and English contexts. When reading the book Imperial Peking， readers with Chinese background surely have different reactions with those who are form the English world. Therefore， Lin took this difference into consideration and used different ways in telling the same story. In the Chinese version， he started a chapter more often with specific details， while in the English version， he would first gave a brief overview of what was going to be discussed， so that readers could have an idea of the whole section before reading more details.

For instance， in Chapter Seven， the writer talks about the Temple of Heaven and began with deep meanings behind this building in the Chinese version. However， in the English version， it is not the case. Given that English readers know little about the Temple of Heaven， Lin describes it in more details. Furthermore， he also adds an illustration to help target readers understand what the temple is like and what lies behind the building. It is obviously not a faithful translation， yet it better serves the purpose to get Chinese culture understood by the world.

When Lin talks about the history of Peking， especially how the Great Wall is built， instead of describing the historical details directly in the English version， he says “The menace for Chinese civilization had always come from the north. Geographically protected by the high Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas on the west and southwest， China had little to fear from the sea on its east and north， until…”. But he does not include this part in the Chinese version. In order to make it easier and clearer， he first gives a brief introduction to the historical background of the Great Wall， which makes reading more smooth for English readers.

3. Cultural Background

As a book to tell Chinese stories and culture， Imperial Peking has been well received in the English world. Through reading the whole book， one could easily find out that Lin frequently uses paraphrases to explain the cultural phenomena that are unique in China and that are not familiar to English readers.

Whats more， Lin Yutang also adopts a smart way to attract the attention and interest of readers by quoting comments from famous persons of the English world. For example， when talking about a place of interest in Peking， Lin borrows words from Marco Polo who is well-known in the English-speaking world. At Lins time， Chinese culture was exotic to the English world， thus it was difficult to have readers to be interested in Chinese philosophy. Yet Lin made it by combining Chinese culture with western elements， which set a great example for translators in how to tell Chinese stories in English.

Some examples are listed as follows. Through studying these examples， we could have a taste of how Lin tells Chinese philosophy to the rest of the world and how to bear readers in mind when doing translation.

In the book， Lin adds some comments of famous persons from English world in order to shorten the distance between the text and readers. For instance， when talking about impressions on the Temple of Heaven， Lin quotes Juliet Bredons words：“then we will feel that the sacred groves and buildings stand for wisdom， love and reverence and an all-pervasive peace that tempers the divine radiance to mans benighted understanding”.

Additional information also serves as a splendid transition when Lin talks about Chinese emperors who are not familiar to foreign readers. In the English version， he says “Just as Napoleon and Haussmann left their marks on Paris， and Empress Maria-Teresa and Franz-Joseph on Vienna， so the Emperors Yunglo and Chienlung have left their marks on Peking.” In the Chinese version， Lin says “就像拿破侖和奧斯芒在巴黎留下了他們的痕跡，瑪利亞·特麗莎女王和弗朗茨·約瑟夫一世在維也納記載著他們的歷史一樣，永樂(lè)，乾隆皇帝也將他們的歷史載入了北京城的史冊(cè)?！?Lin borrows the example of Napoleon and Haussmann to make the example of Chienlung more understandable to foreign readers.

When he talks about the characteristics of Peking， he also makes a comparison between the landmarks in the western world and the palaces in Peking so as to help readers to understand what the buildings mean to this city. The English version is “But it is not the Eiffel Tower that makes Paris what it is， but the Café life in Montmartre and the Boulevard St. Germain that gives it its special flavor. This is also true of Peking. The palaces may impress the tourists， but the real charm of Peking resides in its common people， in the life of the streets.” In the Chinese version， he says “可以說(shuō)并不是埃菲爾鐵塔代表了巴黎，而是蒙馬特區(qū)的咖啡館生活和圣日耳曼林蔭大道賦予巴黎以特殊的情調(diào)。北京也是如此，那些宮殿的確可以吸引游客，而北京的真正魅力卻在于普通百姓，在于街頭巷尾的生活?！?/p>

Conclusion

Translation rhetoric combines translation studies with rhetoric， offering new angles to approach translation studies. In this paper， the author makes an attempt to analyze the book Imperial Peking form the perspective of translation rhetoric and drew the following conclusions. First， when talking about an exotic culture to readers with different cultural backgrounds， translators could shorten the distance between the text and readers by using analogy， or in other words， find a counterpart of what you are talking about in the target language. Second， translation is not only about language transformation， but also about rewriting and reorganization of the text in accordance with the norms that are widely used in the target language. Third， it is necessary to have cultural compensation when readers from the target culture do not have enough cultural background to understand the text. It may sound contrary to the idea of faithful translation， yet it serves the ultimate goal of translation， namely effective cross-culture communication.

Translation rhetoric is an effective way to appreciate great translation works， and it has also enriched translatology theories and research angles， thus more studies on this filed are warmly welcomed and keenly needed.

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【基金項(xiàng)目】外交學(xué)院研究生科研創(chuàng)新基金項(xiàng)目資助。