王大方
(中國人民大學(xué),北京 100872)
從回指解析視角探析語篇實體突顯性的有效評估
王大方
(中國人民大學(xué),北京 100872)
回指研究領(lǐng)域的一個普遍共識是處于受話者注意力中心、突顯性最高的語篇實體在語篇中再次出現(xiàn)時更傾向于被縮略形式所替代(多數(shù)情況為代詞)。因此,在回指解析中的一個關(guān)鍵問題是:哪些因素影響語篇實體的突顯性并幫助受話人對其進行有效評估?本文借助豐富的語例探究指稱距離、信息狀態(tài)、視角效果、指稱形式和平行效應(yīng)這5個因素對語篇實體突顯性的影響,并借助一定數(shù)量的英文語料對解析效度進行檢驗。
回指解析;突顯性;指稱距離;平行效應(yīng)
回指解析指為自然語篇中出現(xiàn)的回指語(主要是第三人稱代詞)檢索出它所指代的先行語(主要是名詞性表達式)的過程。很多學(xué)者發(fā)現(xiàn)突顯性較高的語篇實體在語篇中再次出現(xiàn)時更傾向于被縮略形式(如代詞)替代(Givón 1983, Ariel 1990, Gundel et al. 1993)。因此,如果從回指解析的視角出發(fā),是否能夠較為準確地評估不同語篇實體的突顯性成為解析成功的關(guān)鍵??紤]到自然語言在機器處理方面的可操作性,本文將借助語例從指稱距離、信息狀態(tài)、視角效果、指稱形式和平行效應(yīng)這5個維度對語篇實體突顯性以及它們在回指解析中的作用加以檢驗。
突顯性來自認知心理學(xué)對“圖形—背景”的分析。繼Talmy (1975) 率先將其引入認知語言學(xué)之后,Langacker (1987)突破性地將“突顯”(salience) 視為“識解”(const-rual)的重要組成部分,而Chiarcos等(2011)則進一步將人類認知的“突顯方式”擴大到語篇分析層面,拓寬其應(yīng)用范圍。在指代消解的過程中,有些學(xué)者關(guān)注指稱詞語的語篇功能并以此作為解析的依據(jù)(Fox 1987, Cristea et al. 2000, 許金龍 2004),有些學(xué)者則更關(guān)注指稱對象在記憶中的激活程度和認知地位在指代消解過程中的作用(Ariel 1990, Chafe 1994, Gundel et al. 1993, Kibrik 1999, Almor 2004)。計算語言學(xué)為回指解析提供重要理論依據(jù)的中心理論以指稱語在語句中擔當?shù)木浞ǔ煞譃闃藴?,將突顯性由高至低排列為:主語>>直接賓語>>間接賓語>>修飾語 (Grosz et al. 1983, 1995)。這種評估方法雖然便于計算機對自然語言的處理,但是略顯粗糙,在一定程度上影響解析的準確度。鑒于讀者在獲取新信息的同時須要不斷修正之前的預(yù)設(shè)和推理,本文將語篇信息處理視為一個讀者注意力狀態(tài)不斷更新變化的動態(tài)過程,從指稱距離、信息狀態(tài)、視角效果、指稱形式和平行效應(yīng)這5個維度對不同語篇實體的突顯性進行更為全面和細致的評估,從而有效地識別當前的注意力中心,對語篇內(nèi)的指稱銜接做出正確解讀。
2.1 指稱距離:線性距離與修辭距離
指稱距離是判斷語篇中潛在先行語突顯性的一個重要指標。現(xiàn)有的回指解析方案對指稱距離的計算有兩種:一種是線性向前追溯一句或多句來尋找和代詞相匹配的名詞短語 (Lappin, Leass 1994; Ge et al. 1998; Beaver 2004),另一種是借助語篇層級性的修辭結(jié)構(gòu)來確定搜尋范圍(Fox 1987, Cristea et al. 2000)。McEnery(1997)等學(xué)者借助UCREL回指樹庫的語料發(fā)現(xiàn),85.64%的回指語可以在3個語句的范圍內(nèi)找到其先行語,94.91%的回指語可以在5個語句內(nèi)得到正確解析。雖然線性解析模式因簡單易行而在代詞自動化解讀領(lǐng)域更為普遍,但是層級性的解析模式更符合語篇中信息的組織方式,因而在解析準確度上更勝一籌。
關(guān)于如何借助修辭距離來評判語篇實體的突顯性,F(xiàn)ox(1987)基于修辭結(jié)構(gòu)理論提出的回指語在書面語篇中的分布模式極具指導(dǎo)意義?;谛揶o結(jié)構(gòu)中各語句之間的語義關(guān)聯(lián),F(xiàn)ox指出如果先行語沒有出現(xiàn)在代詞所在的語句,它通常會出現(xiàn)在這一代詞所屬語句的積極語句或控制語句(“積極語句”是該代詞所處最小功能語段中的其它功能語句,“控制語句”是對這一語段具有統(tǒng)領(lǐng)作用的語句),因此在這兩種功能語句中出現(xiàn)的語篇實體往往具有更高的突顯性。以語段(1)中的代詞解析為例, Ethani因所在的語句(1①)是(1②)的積極語句而具有較高的突顯性并由此成為Hej的先行語。而在控制模式中,因為(1③)中的Ethank出現(xiàn)于距離(1⑦)中代詞Hel最近的控制語句而突顯性高于(1⑤)中的our smiling, bow-tied pediatrician,成為Hel的正解。
(1) [①Ethaniwas never a typical baby.][②Hejwas colicky and allergic, beset from the start by skin rashes and a chronic runny nose.] [③Ethankwas also late to the milestones first-time parents anxiously wait for.][④Hesmiled at nine weeks, crawled at nine months, and walked at 16 months.][⑤“The late end of normal,” our smiling, bow-tied pediatrician said.] [⑥But as time passed, the list grew:] [⑦Helhad words by two years, but didn’t combine them.] [⑧He didn’t point, didn’t wave bye-bye, and blinked stupefied at a knot of doting adults clustered around him.][⑨Worse still, he seemed happiest playing alone, dribbling sand through his fingers.] (BoyWonder, fromReader’sDigest, 2006 (8):138)
2.2 信息狀態(tài):主題與焦點
語篇的信息結(jié)構(gòu)指在言語交際中,說話人利用語言符號把想要傳達的信息編碼,組成一個由已知信息和新信息構(gòu)成的連續(xù)的組織模式。在分析信息結(jié)構(gòu)時,有兩個核心概念:“主題”和“焦點”。主題為已知信息,為論述提供主體和背景;而焦點為未知信息,對主題進行補充說明。在回指解析過程中,因為充當主題或焦點的名詞性表達式都預(yù)設(shè)指稱對象的存在,所以都有可能成為讀者注意力的中心進而成為代詞的指稱對象。
代詞的指稱對象往往是當前語篇的核心話題。在無特殊句法標記的句子中,句子的主語通常被默認為句子的主題,如例(2)中的Mr. Bingley,傳統(tǒng)中心理論中對優(yōu)先中心的判定正是基于這一理念。而在一些有標記的句式中,讀者可以根據(jù)表層句法組織結(jié)構(gòu)來確定句子的主題詞。根據(jù)Givón(1983)對多種語言的研究,常見的句法主題標示手段有:存現(xiàn)結(jié)構(gòu)(Existential-presentative Construction,例3)、主題化(Topicalization,例4)、左偏置(Left Dislocation,例5)、右偏置(Right Dislocation,例6)和提升結(jié)構(gòu) (Raising Structure,例7和例8)等。除句法標識手段,有一些表示“關(guān)涉性”(aboutness)的詞語也能夠起到標識主題的作用,如例(9)中的as for. 在英語中,類似的表達形式還有很多,例如speaking of X,with regard to X,considering X和about X. 得益于這些句法手段和標識語的運用,句子主題的識別具有較強的可操作性和明晰性。
(2)Mr.Bingleywas good-looking and gentlemanlike;hehadapleasantcountenance,andeasy,unaffectedmanners. (Jane Austen:PrideandPrejudice)
(3) Andtherewas my aunt, all the time I was dres-sing, preaching and talking away just as if she was reading a sermon. (Jane Austen:PrideandPrejudice)
(4) In principle, he is now capable of carrying out or determining the accuracy of any computation.Somecomputationshe may not be able to carry out in his head. (Noam Chomsky, 1980:221)
(5)Thewomanyouwerejusttalkingto, I don’t know whereshewent.
(6) Below the waterfall, a whole mass of enormous glass pipes were dangling down into the river from somewhere high up in the ceiling!Theyreally were enormous,thosepipes. (R. Dahl:CharlieandtheChocolateFactory)
(7) a. It seems [thatlightenergywill be an important subject of scientific research in the future].
b.Lightenergyseems to be an important subject of scientific research in the future.
(8) a. Many people believe [thatpoinsettiasare poiso-nous].
b. Many people believepoinsettiasto be poisonous.
(9) ... as forMr.Hurst, by whom Elizabeth sat, he was an indolent man, who lived only to eat, drink, and play at cards; who, when he found her to prefer a plain dish to a ragout, had nothing to say to her. (Jane Austen:PrideandPrejudice)
在回指解析的過程中,主題名詞通常被視為默認指稱對象,而將新的信息引入語篇的焦點名詞則往往被視為標記性指稱對象,因其更容易吸引讀者的注意力而在突顯性上更勝一籌。很多學(xué)者發(fā)現(xiàn),如果代詞的指稱對象處于語句的焦點位置,那么讀者可以用較短的時間建立起二者間的同指關(guān)系(Cutler,F(xiàn)odor 1979; Almor 1999)。與主題類似,讀者可以借助標記性的句法結(jié)構(gòu)和形式快速定位在語句中充當焦點的語篇實體。英語的分裂句式(cleft construction)是突出焦點名詞的最為常見和有效的句法手段。這一句法結(jié)構(gòu)將一個命題拆分為兩個小句,進而實現(xiàn)強調(diào)句中某一部分的效果。我們可以根據(jù)形式主語的不同進一步劃分為It-cleft (例10)和Pseudo-cleft(例11)兩種。
(10) It waslegendarySNLcreatorLorneMichaelswho re-commended him as Letterman’s replacement. (Reader’sDigest, 2006:120)
(11) Out of all the episodes we did, the one that really worked wastheoneJeffwroteentirelyhimself. (Reader’sDigest, 2006(9):140)
(12) By using the Magic Formula you can be certain of gaining attention and focusing it upon the main point of your message. It cautions against indulgence in vapid opening remarks, such as: “I didn’t have time to prepare this talk very well”, or “When your chairman asked me to talk on this subject, I wondered why he selected me”. (Dale Carnegie:TheQuickandEasyWaytoEffectiveSpeaking)
在書面語篇中,除句法手段外,英語的一些動詞具有聚焦功能,這些動詞之后的第一個名詞往往能夠獲得讀者更多的關(guān)注從而具有較高的突顯性。計算語言學(xué)家Mit-kov通過實證性研究對這類指示動詞(indicating verbs)簡單歸納,主要包括:analyze, assess, check, consider, cover, define, describe, develop, discuss, examine, explore, highlight, identify, illustrate, investigate, outline, present, report, review, sow, study, summarize, survey和synthesize(Mitkov 2002:146)。在處理語篇信息時,這些動詞可視為焦點標記來輔助突顯性的評估。此外,斜體、粗體、下劃線和字母大寫等呈現(xiàn)形式的變化也可以視為作者發(fā)出的提示信號,引發(fā)讀者在閱讀時對焦點信息的關(guān)注。在例(12)中,作者通過首字母大寫的方式使得Magic Formula成為語篇的焦點信息,因此在對后續(xù)語句中的代詞it(下劃線標識)進行解讀時,Magic Formula在突顯性上高于attention和the main point of your message,成為勝出的候選項。
2.3 視角效果:客觀與主觀
如同攝影師在拍照時可以選取不同的角度來突出景物的不同部分,發(fā)話者在描述一個事件時選取的視角對語篇實體的突顯性也有著重要影響。一方面,說話人可以和語篇中的人物保持一定的距離,采用客觀的視角描述事件;另一方面,說話人可以拉近和語篇中某一個人物的距離,以當事人的視角進行更為主觀的講述。在形式功能語言學(xué)領(lǐng)域,Kuno(1987)利用“移情”(empathy)概念對說話人選取的視角和身份進行描述。具體而言,Kuno將說話人對某一個語篇實體X的移情效應(yīng)E(x)具化為一個在0到1區(qū)間內(nèi)變化的數(shù)值:當說話人與X的身份完全重合時E(x)為1,這樣一種主觀視角使得說話人能夠洞悉X的感觀和內(nèi)心活動;而當說話人與X沒有任何關(guān)聯(lián)時E(x)為0,表明說話人所做的是完全獨立于當事人X的客觀講述。很多學(xué)者注意到移情效應(yīng)和突顯性之間的正向相關(guān),并借助對日語和土耳其語等多種語料的分析證實視角選擇在回指解析中的重要影響 (Kameyama 1985, Walker et al. 1994, Turan 1995)。
說話人視角的選取對受話人注意力狀態(tài)的變化密切相關(guān),當說話人采用主觀視角時,語篇中作為感官主體的人物的突顯性會有一定程度的提升。在對例(13④)中的代詞she進行解讀時,短語in Elizabeth’s mind使小說人物Elizabeth成為當前語篇中突顯度最高的感官主體,雖然另外一個候選項Mrs. Reynolds在線性距離上更勝一籌, Elizabeth仍然是代詞she的真正指稱對象。很多表達認知和心理活動的詞語,如feel,appear,remember,interest,consider,think和across one’s mind,都是主觀視角的有效標識,它們的出現(xiàn)往往意味著作者和某一個語篇人物的身份部分重疊或完全重合。
(13) [①There was certainly at this moment,inElizabeth’smind, a more gentle sensation towards the original than she had ever felt at the height of their acquain-tance.] [②The commendation bestowed on him byMrs.Reynoldswas of no trifling nature.] [③What praise is more valuable than the praise of an intelligent servant?] [④As a brother, a landlord, a master,sheconsidered how many people’s happiness were in his guardianship!] (Jane Austen:PrideandPrejudice)
值得注意,英語中還有一些表示感官的動詞和短語(如see,look at,catch sight of,hear,listen to和notice) 雖然也在一定程度上體現(xiàn)出作者的主觀視角,但是這些動詞往往將讀者的注意力引向緊隨其后的賓語成分,從而提升賓語而非主語的突顯性。在這種情況下,聚焦效應(yīng)對解析的影響力高于視角效應(yīng)。例如在例(14②)中的代詞her有兩個潛在的指稱對象:Mrs.Bennet和her eldest daughter. 雖然Mrs. Bennet處于主語位置,但是感官動詞seen的聚焦功能將讀者的注意力引向her eldest daughter,從而使其突顯度更高并成為代詞her的正確解讀。
(14) [①Mrs.Bennethad seenhereldestdaughtermuch admired by the Netherfield party.] [② Mr. Bingley had danced withhertwice,][③and she had been distinguished by his sisters.] (Jane Austen:PrideandPrejudice)
2.4 指稱形式:名詞與代詞
除信息狀態(tài)和移情效應(yīng)外,語篇中不同指稱形式因為體現(xiàn)出不同量級的主題延續(xù)性,同樣可以幫助我們對不同語篇實體的突顯性進行比較和評估。總體而言,作者在提及一個語篇實體時使用的指稱形式越簡略,這一語篇實體的突顯性越高,在下文中被再次提及的可能性也就越大。這一理論設(shè)想借助篇章分析統(tǒng)計和心理語言學(xué)的方法得以充分驗證 (Chafe 1976; Garrod, Sanford 1983; Givón 1995; Kameyama 1999)。Givón以其主題延續(xù)性的研究為基礎(chǔ),指出“將一個指稱對象編碼為零形代詞或非重讀代詞,表示該指稱對象是當前活躍主題,這一激活狀態(tài)應(yīng)繼續(xù)維持,并應(yīng)該把即將加入的信息進一步存儲在以該指稱對象為標簽的檔案之中” (Givón 1992:5)。在解讀例(15③)中的代詞she時,發(fā)現(xiàn)兩個有效候選項:Miss Bingley和Elizabeth(her)。雖然Miss Bingley出現(xiàn)在主語位置,但是Elizabeth因為是以賓格代詞的形式出現(xiàn)在語篇當中而在突顯性上更勝一籌,成為正解。如果我們將上下文的語境納入視野,不難發(fā)現(xiàn)Elizabeth是整個語篇段落中的核心人物,她借助由例(15②)和例(15④)中的代詞her以及例(15③)中的代詞she建構(gòu)而成的話題鏈一直處于讀者注意力的中心,由此進一步輔證解析結(jié)果的準確性。
(15) [①When the clock struck three,Elizabethfelt that she must go, and very unwillingly said so.][②MissBingleyofferedher(=Elizabeth) the carriage,][③andsheonly wanted a little pressing to accept it...][④when Jane testified such concern in parting withher,][⑤that Miss Bingley was obliged to convert the offer of the chaise to an invitation to remain at Netherfield for the present.] (Jane Austen:PrideandPrejudice)
2.5 平行效應(yīng):延續(xù)與并聯(lián)
除了語句內(nèi)部的影響因素,語句間的語義關(guān)聯(lián)也會對語篇實體的突顯性和回指解析產(chǎn)生深遠的影響。在中心理論中,根據(jù)回指中心的變化程度和方式,Grosz等(1983)將語言使用者注意力中心的切換(transition)區(qū)分為持續(xù)(continuation)、保持(retaining)和轉(zhuǎn)換(shifting) 3種類型。Brennan等(1987)在此基礎(chǔ)上將注意力中心的轉(zhuǎn)換更細致地區(qū)分為平穩(wěn)轉(zhuǎn)換(smooth-shifting)和粗糙轉(zhuǎn)換(rough-shifting) (例(16))。從語篇局部連貫的視角出發(fā),注意力中心過渡狀態(tài)的優(yōu)先等級順序為:持續(xù)>保持>平穩(wěn)轉(zhuǎn)換>粗糙轉(zhuǎn)換。
(16) a. Brennan drives an Alfa Romeo.
b. She drives too fast. (She =Brennan) (CONTINUATION)
c. Friedman races her on weekends. (her=Brennan) (RETAINING)
d. She often beats her. (She=Friedman, her=Brennan) (SMOOTH-SHIFTING)
d’. She often beats her. (She=Brennan, her=Friedman) (ROUGH-SHIFTING)(Brennan et al. 1987:159)
值得一提的是,雖然注意力中心的線性延續(xù)符合讀者閱讀時的心理預(yù)期,但是如果讀者在處理語篇信息時解讀出兩個或多個語句間存在并列或?qū)Ρ汝P(guān)系時,會自然地將兩個小句間的并聯(lián)關(guān)系應(yīng)用于回指解析。這種平行效應(yīng)的作用在例(17)中得以充分體現(xiàn),因為兩個小句間明晰的對比關(guān)系,讀者會自然而然地將代詞it和同它處于對等位置的名詞聯(lián)系起來,其指稱對象也就由(a)中的Prolog變?yōu)?b)中的C.
(17) a. The chef successfully combinedPrologwith C, but he had combineditwith Pascal last time.
b. The programmer successfully combined Prolog withC, but he had combined Pascal withitlast time.
(Mitkov 2002:43)
另外,平行效應(yīng)可以強化或者超越主題延續(xù)性在回指解析中的作用(Sidner 1981;Kameyama 1986;Gordon, Scearce 1995;Mitkov 2002)。在例(18)中,on the one hand...on the other 這一對標志性短語讓讀者可以輕松地將例(18①)中Mr. Giuliani和例(18②)中的代詞he聯(lián)系起來。因為Mr. Giuliani恰好是語句主語,因此平行效應(yīng)起到強化主題延續(xù)性的作用。而在例(19)中,雖然the wild rose并非語句主語,但平行效應(yīng)仍然使其成為代詞it的指稱對象而非the green Whitierleaf.
(18) [①On the one hand,Mr.Giulianiwants to cut into Mr. Dinkins’s credibility.][②On the other,heseeks to convince voters he’s the new Fiorello LaGuardia — affable, good-natured and ready to lead New York out of the mess it’s in.] (WallStreetJournal)
(19) a. The green Whitierleaf is most commonly found nearthewildrose.
b. The wild violet is found nearittoo. (Sidner 1981:228)
為了驗證這5個對突顯度有影響的因素在回指解析中的作用,筆者利用一定數(shù)量的英文語料檢驗其解析效度。為保證語料的多樣性,語篇素材來自于文學(xué)作品和報刊文章,其中包括馬克吐溫和歐亨利的短篇小說各5篇,《紐約時報》和《華爾街日報》的文章各5篇。表1匯總語料中的1201個第三人稱代詞,由于物主代詞和自反代詞主要依靠線性指稱距離和句法規(guī)約解析,我們關(guān)注其中979個具有指稱作用的名詞性人稱代詞的解析情況。
表1 第三人稱代詞匯總表
在回指解析中,有兩種類型的回指是解析難點:遠距離回指(long-distance anaphora)和模糊回指(tough anaphora)。以往很多回指解析理論模型僅從語篇的線性發(fā)展入手,到回指語所在語句的前一句去尋找其先行語,這樣的搜尋范圍因太過狹窄而常常在解析遠距離回指時遭遇瓶頸。得益于修辭距離的引入,在全部979個人稱代詞中,有882個代詞的先行語出現(xiàn)在本句或與其相鄰的積極語句中,另有71個代詞通過向前追溯兩個語句甚至更遠的距離在它們的控制語句中找到對應(yīng)的先行語,只有26個代詞的先行語超出控制語句的范疇。而對于具有多個性數(shù)一致的先行語的模糊回指,另外4個因素在對候選先行語的篩選中發(fā)揮更重要作用。在本研究采集的語料中,模糊回指的數(shù)量為94個,如果只依靠句法成分來評估語篇實體的突顯性,解析的成功率為92.4%,而如果將信息狀態(tài)、視角效果、指稱形式和平行效應(yīng)納入先行語的篩選體系,解析的成功率提升到95.2%。由此不難看出,對于突顯性更為細致準確的評估能夠在很大程度上提升回指解析的準確度。
在回指解析的過程中,是否能夠準確地評估不同語篇實體的突顯性是成功的關(guān)鍵。利用中心優(yōu)選理論框架中評估器的篩選機制,本文分析指稱距離、信息狀態(tài)、視角效果、指稱形式和平行效應(yīng)這5個對突顯性有重要影響的因素,并驗證它們在回指解析中的重要作用。這些評估因素的引入無疑提升回指解析的準確度,但是不可避免地降低在自然語言處理方面的可操作性,如何在理論體系的功能性和可操作性之間尋求更好的平衡還需要更為深入的探討。希望本研究所做的理論探索可以助力更大規(guī)模的自然語言處理中回指解析的實證性研究。
許余龍. 篇章回指的的功能語用探索[M]. 上海:上海外語教育出版社, 2004.
Almor, A. Noun-phrase Anaphora and Focus: The Informational Load Hypothesis[J].PsychologicalReview, 1999(106).
Almor, A. A Computational Investigation of Reference in Production and Comprehension[A]. In: Trueswell, J.C., Tanenhaus, M.K.(Eds.),ApproachestoStudyingWorld-situatedLanguageUse:BridgingtheLanguage-as-productandLanguage-as-actionTraditions[C]. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004.
Ariel, M.AccessingNoun-phraseAntecedents[M]. London: Routledge, 1990.
Beaver, D. The Optimization of Discourse Anaphora[J].LinguisticandPhilosophy, 2004(1).
Brennan, S., Friedman, M., Pollard, C. A Centering Approach to Pronouns [A]. In: Sidner, C. (Ed.),Proceedingsofthe25thAnnualMeetingoftheACL(ACL’87)[C]. Stanford: Association for Computational Linguistics, 1987.
Chafe, W. L. Givenness, Contrastiveness, Definiteness, Subjects, Topics, and Point of View [A]. In: Li, C.(Ed.),SubjectandTopic[C]. New York: Academic Press, 1976.
Chafe, W. L.Discourse,Consciousness,andTime[M]. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994.
Chiarcos, C., Claus. B., Grabski, M.Salience:MultidisciplinaryPerspectivesonItsFunctioninDiscourse[M]. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2011.
Chomsky, N.RulesandRepresentations[M]. New York: Columbia University Press, 1980.
Cristea, D., Ide, N., Marcu, D., Tablan, V. An Empirical Investigation of the Relation between Discourse Structure and Co-reference[A]. In: Bulmahn, E.(Ed.),Procee-dingsofthe18thInternationalConferenceonComputatio-nalLinguisticsCOLNG[C]. Saarbrucken: International Committee on Computational Linguistics, 2000.
Cutler, A., Fodor, J.A. Semantic Focus and Sentence Comprehension[J].Cognition, 1979(7).
Fox, B.DiscourseStructureandAnaphora[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Garrod, S., Sanford, A. Topic Dependent Effects in Language Processing[A]. In: Flores d’Arcais, G., Jarvella, R.(Eds.),TheProcessofLanguageUnderstanding[C]. Chichester: John Wiley, 1983.
Ge, N., Hale, J., Charniak, E. A Statistical Approach to Anaphora Resolution[A]. In: Isabelle, P.(Ed.),ProceedingsoftheWorkshoponVeryLargeCorpora[C]. Montreal: Association for Computational Linguistics, 1998.
Givón, T. Topic Continuity in Discourse: An Introduction[A]. In: Givón, T. (Ed.),TopicContinuityinDiscourse:AQuantitativeCross-languageStudy[C]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1983.
Givón, T. The Grammar of Referential Coherence as Mental Processing Instructions[J].Linguistics, 1992(30).
Givón, T.FunctionismandGrammar[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1995.
Gordon, P. C., Scearce, K. A. Pronominalization and Discourse Coherence, Discourse Structure and Pronoun Interpretation[J].Memory&Cognition, 1995(23).
Grosz, B., Joshi, A., Weinstein, S. Providing a Unified Account of Definite Noun Phrases in Discourse[A]. In: Marcus, M.(Ed.),Proceedingsofthe21stAnnualMee-tingoftheAssociationforComputationalLinguistics[C]. Stroudsburg: Association for Computational Linguistics, 1983.
Grosz, B., Joshi, A., Weinstein, S. Centering: A Framework for Modeling the Local Coherence of Discourse[J].ComputationalLinguistics, 1995 (21).
Gundel, J., Hedberg, N., Zacharski, R. Cognitive Status and the Form of Referring Expressions in Discourse[J].Language, 1993(69).
Kameyama, M. Zero Anaphora: The Case of Japanese[D]. Stanford University, 1985.
Kameyama, M. A Property-sharing Constraint in Centering[A]. In: Bierman, A.W.(Ed.),Proceedingsofthe24thAnnualMeetingoftheAssociationforComputationalLinguistics[C]. New York: Associations for Computational Linguistics, 1986.
Kameyama, M. Stressed and Unstressed Pronouns: Complementary Preferences[A]. In: Peter, B., van der Sandt, R.(Eds.),Focus:Linguistic,Cognitive,andComputationalPerspectives[C]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Kibrik, A. A. Reference and Working Memory: Cognitive Inferences from Discourse Observations [A]. In: van Hoek, K.(Ed.),DiscourseStudiesinCognitiveLinguistics[C]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Compary, 1999.
Kuno, S.FunctionalSyntax:Anaphora,DiscourseandEmpathy[M]. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Langacker, W.FoundationsofCognitiveGrammar:TheoreticalPrerequisites[M]. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987.
Lappin, S., Leass, H. An Algorithm for Pronominal Anaphora Resolution[J].ComputationalLinguistics, 1994(20).
McEnery, A., Tanaka, I., Botley, S. Corpus Annotation and Reference Resolution[A]. In: Cohen, P.R., Wallster, W.(Eds.),ProceedingsoftheACL‘97/EACL’ 97WorkshoponOperationalFactorsinPractical,RobustAnaphoraResolution[C]. Madrid: Association for Computational Linguistics, 1997.
Mitkov, R.AnaphoraResolution[M]. London: Pearson Education, 2002.
Sidner, C. L. Focusing for Interpretation of Pronouns[J].ComputationalLinguistics, 1981(7).
Talmy, L. Figure and Ground in Complex Sentences[A]. In: Cogien, C., Thompson, H., Thurgood, G., Whistler, K., Wright, J.(Eds.),ProceedingsoftheFirstAnnualMeetingoftheBerkeleyLinguisticsSociety[C]. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society, 1975.
Turan, U. D. Null vs. Overt Subjects in Turkish Discourse: A Centering Analysis[D]. University of Pennsylvania, 1995.
Walker, M.A., Iida, M., Cote, S. Japanese Discourse and the Process of Centering[J].ComputationalLinguistics, 1994(20).
ValidAssessmentofDiscourseEntities’SalienceWeightintheLightofAnaphoraResolution
Wang Da-fang
(Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China)
There exists a general consensus that the most salient discourse entity, those entities that are currently at the center of attention, tend to be referred to with the most reduced referring expressions, in most cases a pronoun. Here comes the question that is crucial for anaphora resolution: what kinds of factors influence a referent’s salience weight and how to evaluate it validly? In this paper, five factors that have been claimed to influence salience are examined with abundant examples: (1) referential distance; (2) information status; (3) view-point effect; (4) referential form, and (5) parallel effect. Finally, the effectiveness of the five factors in anaphora resolution is fully validated with a number of English texts.
anaphora resolution; salience;referential distance; parallel effect
H030
A
1000-0100(2016)05-0068-6
10.16263/j.cnki.23-1071/h.2016.05.020
定稿日期:2016-06-17
【責任編輯孫 穎】