牛叔文+蘭忠成+胡嫄嫄
收稿日期:2014-02-22
作者簡介:牛叔文,教授,博導(dǎo),主要研究方向?yàn)樯鷳B(tài)經(jīng)濟(jì)與區(qū)域發(fā)展。
通訊作者:蘭忠成,碩士生,主要研究方向?yàn)槿丝谂c資源環(huán)境。
基金項(xiàng)目:國家自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目“西部地區(qū)城鎮(zhèn)化過程中生活用能模式的變動(dòng)機(jī)制及其環(huán)境影響”(編號:41171437)。
摘要城市化過程與人口自然增長率的下降顯著相關(guān)。我國正處于城市化加速推進(jìn)的重要時(shí)期,人口增長速度的減緩既為我國的現(xiàn)代化建設(shè)創(chuàng)造了有利條件,也帶來了一系列需要考慮和解決的問題。本文基于我國城市人口的生育率明顯低于農(nóng)村人口,而城市人口占總?cè)丝诘谋戎匮杆偕仙@一事實(shí)做出四個(gè)推論,對我國人口數(shù)量及城鄉(xiāng)結(jié)構(gòu)變化的可能情景進(jìn)行了分析。約束我國人口增長的因素可簡化為生育政策效應(yīng)和城市化效應(yīng)二部分,前者可視為外部約束,后者可視為內(nèi)部約束(即家庭主動(dòng)節(jié)育)。參照城市化過程、人口增長變化與我國具有共同趨勢的17個(gè)新興工業(yè)化國家和發(fā)展中國家的情況,用類比方法估算出1972-2012年期間我國約束人口增長的城市化效應(yīng)和計(jì)劃生育政策效應(yīng)。結(jié)果表明,前者使人口自然增長率由24.57‰下降到10.0‰-12.0‰,后者則進(jìn)一步使增長率下降到4.87‰,并減少出生人口3.44億-4.14億人??煞秩齻€(gè)階段來分析內(nèi)、外部因素的影響效果,政策效應(yīng)時(shí)期(1972-1980),政策效應(yīng)為主、城市化效應(yīng)為輔時(shí)期(1980-1995),政策效應(yīng)與城市化效應(yīng)并重時(shí)期(1995-2012)。40年來政策效應(yīng)由強(qiáng)變?nèi)酰鞘谢?yīng)由弱變強(qiáng)。在新的發(fā)展階段上,為減輕人口對資源環(huán)境的壓力需要繼續(xù)控制人口增長。另一方面,為避免人口老齡化帶來的諸多問題,需要保持人口的適度增長。黨的十八屆三中全會(huì)對人口政策的重大調(diào)整非常及時(shí)和必要,但需要在堅(jiān)持計(jì)劃生育基本國策的同時(shí),逐步減弱政策約束,增強(qiáng)內(nèi)部約束,充分發(fā)揮城市化的效應(yīng)。在各地區(qū)、各民族實(shí)行統(tǒng)一的生育政策,把約束人口增長的機(jī)制由政策強(qiáng)制變?yōu)榧彝ブ鲃?dòng)意愿,創(chuàng)造更加公平、合理和人性化的制度環(huán)境和平臺,有序推進(jìn)城市化過程。
關(guān)鍵詞城市化;人口增長;約束機(jī)制;人口政策
中圖分類號C924.2文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼A文章編號1002-2104(2014)08-0049-08doi:103969/jissn1002-2104201408007
城市化是社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的必然產(chǎn)物,也是一個(gè)國家或地區(qū)走向現(xiàn)代化的必由過程。已有大量研究表明,城市化進(jìn)程伴隨著人口增長的收斂,即綜合生育率的下降。在先期走上城市化道路的歐美國家,早期的城市化過程與生育率下降雖為正相關(guān),但并不顯著。在中后期,相關(guān)性顯著[1-2]。二戰(zhàn)后日本城市化水平的提高也產(chǎn)生了生育率的明顯下降[3]。同樣的證據(jù)在許多新興工業(yè)化國家和發(fā)展中國家也有充分的表現(xiàn)[4-7]。
中國從20世紀(jì)70年代初開始實(shí)施計(jì)劃生育政策,并于1979年在城鎮(zhèn)地區(qū)實(shí)行獨(dú)子政策,人口增長率迅速下降,為減緩全球人口的增長做出了重大貢獻(xiàn),也大大減輕了國內(nèi)人口對資源環(huán)境的壓力,為中國的現(xiàn)代化建設(shè)創(chuàng)造了有利條件。中國有效控制人口增長的經(jīng)驗(yàn)成為國內(nèi)外學(xué)術(shù)界關(guān)注的議題。有些研究認(rèn)為影響中國人口增長率下降的主要原因是計(jì)劃生育的政策效應(yīng)[8-11]。另有一些研究基于中國城市化過程和社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的廣闊背景,對政策以外的影響因素給予了較多關(guān)注。包括生活質(zhì)量的改善,教育水平的提高,就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)的增多,婦女地位的提高,城市住房的短缺,晚婚和死亡率的下降,孩子的收益和成本的改變,家庭和婚姻制度的變化,農(nóng)村向城鎮(zhèn)的人口遷移,等等,都促進(jìn)了中國人口增長模式的轉(zhuǎn)變[12-16]。還有研究認(rèn)為中國的低替代生育率并非嚴(yán)厲的人口政策所致,與其它社會(huì)一樣,在很大程度上都是由社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)日益發(fā)展的全球力量所驅(qū)動(dòng)[17],“政策因素已經(jīng)對人們的生育行為失去影響力或影響甚微”[18]。對于家庭的生育行為而言,計(jì)劃生育政策具有強(qiáng)制性,政策效應(yīng)屬于外部約束。而與城市化過程相伴而來的就業(yè)、婚姻、教育、移民、生活方式轉(zhuǎn)變等問題,使得家庭主動(dòng)節(jié)育,可視為內(nèi)部約束。
另一方面,我國人口控制取得巨大成就的同時(shí),也存在著諸多需要考慮和亟待解決的問題。一是巨大的人口基數(shù)及其消費(fèi)水平提高對資源環(huán)境壓力的持續(xù)增大,給氣候變化、能源和糧食安全帶來負(fù)面影響[19];二是人口迅速的老齡化使得未來勞動(dòng)人口供給不足,拖累經(jīng)濟(jì)增長,并對公共衛(wèi)生、社會(huì)服務(wù)和撫養(yǎng)造成了前所未有的挑戰(zhàn),出現(xiàn)“未富先老”的困局[20]。第六次人口普查時(shí)我國60歲及以上人口占13.26%;三是生育偏好引起的新生人口的性別失調(diào)?!傲铡睌?shù)據(jù)顯示,我國出生人口男女性別比為118.06,“重男輕女”的傳統(tǒng)思想將使上千萬適齡男性面臨“娶妻難”的困境[21];四是由于意外傷亡產(chǎn)生的“失獨(dú)家庭”成為沒有歡樂的孤獨(dú)人群。根據(jù)衛(wèi)生部《2010中國衛(wèi)生統(tǒng)計(jì)年鑒》估算,我國每年新增7.6萬個(gè)失獨(dú)家庭,全國失獨(dú)家庭超過百萬個(gè)[22];五是代際資產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移產(chǎn)生的貧富差距的擴(kuò)大。城鄉(xiāng)收入差異是人口由農(nóng)村流向城鎮(zhèn)的基本動(dòng)因[23],城鎮(zhèn)居民收入較高,且為獨(dú)子,家庭資產(chǎn)通過代際轉(zhuǎn)移擴(kuò)大了積累,農(nóng)村居民則相反。這意味著社會(huì)的貧富差距不斷擴(kuò)大。六是大量人口流動(dòng)帶來的社會(huì)管理問題,影響社會(huì)和諧。流動(dòng)人口的社會(huì)保障難以落實(shí),增加了他們的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和成本。
我國正處于城市化加速推進(jìn)的重要時(shí)期,人口的數(shù)量、質(zhì)量、結(jié)構(gòu)、城鄉(xiāng)分布及其變動(dòng)趨勢,對實(shí)現(xiàn)可持續(xù)發(fā)展的影響巨大。本文的目的是通過定量分析,估算人口增長收斂中的政策效應(yīng)和城市化效應(yīng),揭示不同時(shí)期約束人口增長的主要因素和變動(dòng)機(jī)制,討論新的發(fā)展階段上人口增長轉(zhuǎn)型的政策啟示,以適應(yīng)全面建成小康社會(huì)的需要。
1推論、方法和資料來源
1.1推論和計(jì)量方法
近30多年來,我國城市人口的生育率明顯低于農(nóng)村人口,而城市人口占總?cè)丝诘谋戎匮杆偕仙o@然,這是人口由農(nóng)村向城市大規(guī)模轉(zhuǎn)移的結(jié)果,即新增的城市人口由原有人口的自然增長和凈遷入的移民二部分構(gòu)成?;谶@樣的基本實(shí)事,可以推論:
第一,在現(xiàn)有的計(jì)劃生育政策約束下,歷年總?cè)丝诘臄?shù)量不變,城鎮(zhèn)和農(nóng)村人口的自然增長率保持既有水平。如果沒有由農(nóng)村向城市的移民,由于城市人口的自然增長率低于農(nóng)村,隨著時(shí)間推移,我國的城市化水平將不斷下降。
第二,由農(nóng)村向城市的移民使一部分具有較高自然增長率的農(nóng)村人口轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)檩^低自然增長率的城市人口,由此減少的人口數(shù)量體現(xiàn)了城市化約束人口增長的直接效應(yīng)。
第三,如果在1979年在城鄉(xiāng)同步實(shí)行“一胎”生育政策,即鄉(xiāng)村人口的自然增長率和城市相等,而移民數(shù)量不變,農(nóng)村人口及總?cè)丝诘臄?shù)量會(huì)低于目前水平,我國城市化水平會(huì)更高一些。
第四,如果國家沒有實(shí)行計(jì)劃生育政策,中國人口會(huì)保持慣性增長,人口群體無疑會(huì)大于目前的實(shí)際人口數(shù)量。近40年來,國際上一些新興工業(yè)化國家和發(fā)展中國家隨著城市化水平的提高,他們的人口自然增長率和綜合生育率都呈下降趨勢。假定我國人口自然增長率與這些國家保持同步下降水平,可以估算出在內(nèi)部約束下總?cè)丝诘淖兓?,從而把約束人口增長的城市化效應(yīng)和政策效應(yīng)分解開來。
基于以上推論,對我國人口數(shù)量及城鄉(xiāng)結(jié)構(gòu)變化的可能情景進(jìn)行分析。
Ltu=∑ti=1Pt-1u(1+Utr)PtT=PtT-(Pt-1r+∑ti=1Ptm)PtT(1)
PtTm=∑ti=1[(Rtr-Utr)×Ptm](2)
PtT1=∑ti=1Pt-1T(1+Utr)(3)
PtT2=Pt-1T2(1+Atr)(4)
Atr=At 0r-At 0r-AtdrT×t(t=1,2,...T)(5)
(1)-(5)式中:
Ltu—第t年的人口城市化水平(%),
Pt-1u—第t-1年的城鎮(zhèn)人口(萬人),當(dāng)t=1時(shí)為初始年份(1978年)的數(shù)據(jù),
Pt-1r—第t-1年的農(nóng)村人口(萬人),當(dāng)t=1時(shí)為初始年份的數(shù)據(jù),
PtT—第t年的總?cè)丝?萬人),
Utr—第t年的城鎮(zhèn)人口自然增長率(‰),
Rtr—第t年的農(nóng)村人口自然增長率(‰),
Ptm—第t年的移民數(shù)量(萬人),
∑ti=1Ptm—累計(jì)移民數(shù)量(萬人),
PtTm—t年內(nèi)移民減少人口增加的累計(jì)值(萬人),
P0T—初始年份的總?cè)丝?萬人),
PtT1—城鄉(xiāng)同步實(shí)行“獨(dú)子”政策時(shí),估算的第t年總?cè)丝?萬人),
Ptr2—城市化約束下估算的第t年總?cè)丝?萬人),
Atr—第t年實(shí)際的人口自然增長率(‰),
At 0r—起始年份的人口自然增長率(‰),
Atdr—末年的人口自然增長率(‰),
T— 年份跨度。
1.2資料來源
在歷年的《中國統(tǒng)計(jì)年鑒》中,取得了1978年以來我國歷年總?cè)丝诩捌渥匀辉鲩L率、城市和農(nóng)村的人口數(shù)據(jù),還有1978-1986年、1989-1999年二個(gè)時(shí)段的城鎮(zhèn)人口自然增長率。為了估算由農(nóng)村到城鎮(zhèn)的移民數(shù)量,需要找出其它缺失年份的城鎮(zhèn)人口自然增長率。
Zhang和Song[23]較為深入地研究了1978-1999年中國農(nóng)村到城鎮(zhèn)的移民及城市化問題,認(rèn)為移民對中國城市的人口增長做出了主要貢獻(xiàn)。根據(jù)他們估算的移民數(shù)量可測算出城鎮(zhèn)人口自然增長率,結(jié)果與來自于《中國統(tǒng)計(jì)年鑒》的數(shù)據(jù)十分接近。據(jù)此結(jié)果補(bǔ)充了1986和1987年的缺失數(shù)據(jù)。
1978年以來,我國總?cè)丝诘淖匀辉鲩L率波動(dòng)變化。1987年出現(xiàn)一個(gè)較大峰值16.61‰后持續(xù)下降,近幾年已低于5‰。城市人口的自然增長率與總?cè)丝诘淖匀辉鲩L率逐年接近。基于這一趨勢,有的文獻(xiàn)直接用后者替代前者[16]。雖然這不失為一種處理方法,但低估了移民數(shù)量。1987年以來總?cè)丝谂c城市人口的自然增長率之差逐年縮小,由1987年的5.21%收斂到1999年的0.51%。參考盧向虎、王永剛[24]提出的方法,用較長序列的總?cè)丝诘淖匀辉鲩L率修補(bǔ)2000-2012年期間的城市人口自然增長率,具體計(jì)算方法如下:
Utr=Ut-1r+(Ttr-Tt-1r)-DT+DU(6)
(6)式中,Ut-1r為第t-1年城鎮(zhèn)人口自然增長率(‰),(Ttr-Tt-1r)為第t年和第t-1年總?cè)丝谧匀辉鲩L率的一階差分,DT為1987-2012年總?cè)丝诘淖匀辉鲩L率一階差分的平均值,DU為1987-1999年城鎮(zhèn)人口自然增長率的一階差分的平均值。
參照國家1960-2012年的人口數(shù)量及自然增長率來自世界銀行開放數(shù)據(jù)。
2不同情景下人口增長及城鄉(xiāng)分布變化
在推論1設(shè)定的情景下,由于城市人口的比量小、且自然增長率較低,我國的城市化水平將趨于下降。到2012年我國城市人口2.2億人,城市化水平為16.3%,比實(shí)際城市化水平52.6%低36.3%,還低于1978年的水平(17.46%)。這表明,城市人口的總量雖在增長,但相對的比重下降了,大量的人口滯留在農(nóng)村。這意味著城鎮(zhèn)地區(qū)更為嚴(yán)格的生育政策不利于城市化水平的提高。參見表1。
每年新增的城市人口可分解為二個(gè)部分:城市的自然增長和由農(nóng)村到城市的移民。移民群體在遷移前后自然增長率之差,可視為城市化約束人口增長的直接效應(yīng)。1978-2012年期間,由于移民減少的出生人口累計(jì)達(dá)7507萬人,多于2005年以來全國每年的新增人口。
在推論3設(shè)定的情景下,全國人口都以城市的自然增長率增長,2012年全國總?cè)丝跒?2.63億,比實(shí)際人口少0.9億;城市化水平56.35%,比實(shí)際水平52.57%高出3.78%。在2012年7.12億城市人口中,自然增長部分096億人,占1352%;移民448億人,占6298%;其余的2182%為原有人口基數(shù)。顯然,由農(nóng)村到城市的移民成為中國城市人口增長的主要方面。
根據(jù)世界銀行的數(shù)據(jù),有17個(gè)新興工業(yè)化國家和發(fā)展中國家隨著城市化水平的提高,人口的自然增長率和綜合生育率呈持續(xù)下降的過程(參看圖1、圖2 和圖3)。雖然城市化水平的基數(shù)存在較大差異,但人口增長減緩的趨勢具有共性特征。有些國家(例如印度、蒙古、秘魯?shù)?雖然也由非政府組織推動(dòng)計(jì)劃生育,但政策的約束力度遠(yuǎn)不如中國。因此,這些國家的數(shù)據(jù)對我國具有一定的參照作用。特別是印度尼西亞的城市化過程與中國的情況相近,在中國實(shí)施計(jì)劃生育政策的1972年以來,二國人口自然增長率的差異不大。
在1972年,我國人口自然增長率及綜合生育率的基數(shù)略低于印度尼西亞和17個(gè)參照國家平均值(參看表2)。1972-2012年的40年中,印度尼西亞和17個(gè)參照國家平均的人口自然增長率和綜合生育率都下降了一半值以上。我國城市化水平的推進(jìn)速度快于對照國家,人口自然增長率與對照國家實(shí)現(xiàn)同步下降,由1972年的24.57‰下降到2012年的10.0‰-12.0‰是完全有可能的。以平均下降速度逐年推算,2012年我國總?cè)丝谠?6.98億-17.68億之間,比2012年的實(shí)際人口數(shù)量(13.54億)多了3.44億-4.14億人,可視為計(jì)劃生育的政策效應(yīng)。即,人口自然增長率由24.57‰下降到10.0‰-12.0‰為城市化的效應(yīng),由10.0‰-12.0‰下降到4.87‰為政策效應(yīng)。Guo Z等人分析了我國1982-2008年城市化對綜合生育率的影響,認(rèn)為城市化對綜合生育率下降的貢獻(xiàn)為22%[11]。顯然,這個(gè)結(jié)果比我們估算的城市化效應(yīng)要低一些。
3不同時(shí)期影響人口增長的因素分析
前面用類比的方法分析了約束人口增長的城市化效應(yīng)和政策效應(yīng)。事實(shí)上,約束人口增長的多種因素是同時(shí)起作用的,且有交互耦合的復(fù)雜關(guān)聯(lián)。應(yīng)當(dāng)結(jié)合不同時(shí)期的具體情況分析內(nèi)外部因素的影響效果。
3.11972-1980年為政策效應(yīng)時(shí)期
1972年國家開始實(shí)施計(jì)劃生育政策,在隨后的8年內(nèi),我國的人口自然增長率由24.57‰(22.16‰)迅速下降到12‰以內(nèi)。那時(shí),我國的城市化過程很緩慢,城鎮(zhèn)人口不到總?cè)丝诘?0%,難以對人口增長約束的發(fā)揮重要作用。因此,人口自然增長率的下降主要是政策強(qiáng)制的結(jié)果。這使得我國人口規(guī)模迅速擴(kuò)大的趨勢得到有效遏制,為緩解人口對資源環(huán)境的壓力提供了有利條件。另一方面,通過政策強(qiáng)制的外部約束形成了較大行政成本,也帶來了干群關(guān)系緊張等一些社會(huì)問題。
3.21980-1995年以政策效應(yīng)為主、城市化效應(yīng)為輔時(shí)期1979年起國家在城鎮(zhèn)地區(qū)嚴(yán)格實(shí)行“一胎”生育政表11978年以來我國人口增長的情景分析
Tab.1Scenario analysis on Chinas population growth 1978
年份
Year自然增長
率(‰)
Natural
growth
rate年末總?cè)?/p>
口(萬人)
Total
population
城鎮(zhèn)人口
自然增長
率(‰)
Natural
growth
rate of
urban
population
城鎮(zhèn)人口
(萬人)
Urban
population
城鎮(zhèn)人口
自然增長
(萬人)
Natural
growth
of urban
population
當(dāng)年人口
遷移(萬人)
Migrants
累計(jì)移民
數(shù)量
(萬人)
Cumulative
migrants
無移民時(shí)
城鎮(zhèn)人口
(萬人)
Urban
population
without
immigration
農(nóng)村人口
自然率(‰)
Natural
growth
rate of
rural
population
城鄉(xiāng)自然
增長率之
差(‰)
Gap
between
urban and
rural natural
growth
rate移民減少
人口(萬人)
Population
declined by
migrant
移民累計(jì)
減少人口
(萬人)
Cumulative
population
declined by
migrant
197812.096 2598.44/8.317 25014144044016 809.712.84.321.9011.901197911.6197 5428.6/7.918 4941481 0961 53616 954.212.33.675.6337.534198011.8798 7058.69/8.319 1401614852 02117 101.612.63.927.93115.465198114.55100 07211.31/9.920 1712168152 83617 29515.34.0211.39826.863198215.68101 65412.96/10.621 4802611 0483 88417 519.116.43.4113.22940.093198313.29103 00810.07/9.322 2742165784 46217 695.614.24.0818.21358.306198413.08104 3579.14/8.724 0172041 5396 00117 857.314.25.0330.16588.47198514.26105 8518.06/9.825 0941948836 88418 001.216.18.0555.439143.909198615.57107 50711.64/10.726 3662929807 8641 8210.816.85.1540.508184.417198716.61109 300/11.4 27 6743019738 83718 418.417.95.1845.78230.197198815.73111 026/10.9 28 6613026599 49618 619.1175.249.336279.533198915.04112 70410.95/10.529 54031456510 06118 82316.55.5155.469335.003199014.39114 33310.43/10.130 19530834710 40819 019.315.85.3755.856390.859199112.98115 8239.99/9.231 20330270611 11419 209.314.14.0645.158436.017199211.6117 1719.7/7.932 17530366911 78319 395.712.32.630.645466.662199311.45118 5179.38/8.033 17330269612 47919 577.612.22.8535.613502.275199411.21119 8509.6/7.834 16931867813 15719 765.511.82.2429.418531.692199510.55121 1219.23/7.435 17431569013 84719 94811.11.8525.567557.26199610.42122 3898.82/7.337 3043101 82015 66720 123.911.12.2535.326592.586199710.06123 6268.94/8.739 4493331 81217 47920 303.810.61.6128.158620.74419989.14124 7618.36/8.241 6083301 82919 30820 473.69.51.1522.118642.86219998.18125 7867.67/7.443 7483191 82121 12920 630.68.40.7716.167659.02920007.58126 7436.81/ 45 9062981 86022 98920 771.17.80.6114.089673.11820016.95127 6276.32/ 48 0642901 86824 85720 902.47.10.4210.509683.62720026.45128 4535.79/ 50 2122781 87026 72721 023.46.60.328.557692.18320036.01129 2275.40/ 52 3762711 89328 62021 136.96.10.267.497699.68120045.87129 9885.06/ 54 2832651 64230 26221 243.960.226.59706.27120055.89130 7565.03/ 56 2122731 65631 91821 350.760.195.999712.2720065.28131 4485.15/ 58 2882891 78733 70521 460.75.40.185.885718.15520075.17132 1294.65/ 60 6332712 07435 77921 560.55.20.165.756723.91120085.08132 8024.64/ 62 4032811 48937 26821 660.55.10.155.48729.39120094.87133 4504.66/ 64 5122911 81839 08621 761.54.90.135.133734.52420104.79134 0914.55/ 66 9782942 17241 25821 860.54.90.145.56740.08420114.79134 7354.58/ 69 0793071 79443 05221 960.64.80.125.133745.21720124.95135 4044.68/ 71 1823231 78044 83222 063.450.125.49750.707合計(jì)9 48144 83216 809.717.46750.707注: 1978-1999年城鎮(zhèn)人口自然增長率(‰)的數(shù)據(jù)來自歷年《中國統(tǒng)計(jì)年鑒》/文獻(xiàn)[24],即1987、1988年采用文獻(xiàn)[24],其它年份用《中國統(tǒng)計(jì)年鑒》;2000-2012年的數(shù)據(jù)由本文估算。
圖11960-2012年參照新興工業(yè)化國家和發(fā)展中
國家城市化率
Fig.1Urbanization rate of the selected newly
industrialized countries and developing countries
during 1960-2012圖21960-2011年參照新興工業(yè)化國家和發(fā)展中
國家總和生育率
Fig.2Total fertility rate of the selected newly
industrialized countries and developing countries
during 1960-2011圖31960-2012年參照新興工業(yè)化國家和發(fā)展中
國家人口自然增長率
Fig.3Natural population growth rate of the selected
newly industrialized countries and developing
countries during 1960-2012
表2中國與參照國家城市化水平和人口
增長參數(shù)的對比
Tab.2Contrast of urbanization level and population
growth parameters between China and reference countries
年份
Year國家
Country城市化
水平(%)
Urbanization
level人口自
然增長
率(‰)
Natural
population
growth rate總和
生育率
Total
fertility
rate1972中國17.4024.57/22.16*14.89印度尼西亞17.9725.145.3417個(gè)參照國家平均45.9225.305.442012中國51.784.87/4.95*11.66*2印度尼西亞51.4512.482.40*217個(gè)參照國家平均65.7111.512.24*2變動(dòng)中國34.38-19.70-3.24印度尼西亞33.48-12.66-2.9417個(gè)參照國家平均19.84-13.79-3.20注:*1世界銀行數(shù)據(jù)/《中國統(tǒng)計(jì)年鑒》,2 個(gè)口徑的數(shù)據(jù)有差異;*2為2011年的數(shù)據(jù)。
策,政策效應(yīng)依然較強(qiáng)。另一方面,改革開放也有力地促進(jìn)了城市化過程,城鎮(zhèn)人口持續(xù)增多,城市化約束人口增長的效應(yīng)日趨強(qiáng)化。1995年,我國的城市化水平達(dá)到30%,基本完成了城市化的初期階段。這一時(shí)期,由于城鎮(zhèn)人口的比重不大,內(nèi)部約束力有限,人口自然增長率的反彈,至1987年出現(xiàn)16.61‰的峰值。這是政策效應(yīng)已經(jīng)充分發(fā)揮、而城市化效應(yīng)尚未發(fā)力、人口增長仍有較大慣性的表現(xiàn)。
3.31995-2012年城市化效應(yīng)和政策效應(yīng)并重的時(shí)期
我國城市化已通過“S”型曲線的第一個(gè)拐點(diǎn),進(jìn)入了加速增長時(shí)期,城鎮(zhèn)人口每年新增約1%,2000年后每年增加1.3%。每年有大量農(nóng)村勞動(dòng)力進(jìn)城打工。城市化效應(yīng)日益增強(qiáng),內(nèi)部約束成為新時(shí)期減緩人口增長的重要方面。隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和社會(huì)轉(zhuǎn)型,一系列因素使得家庭主動(dòng)節(jié)育。一是育齡人口教育水平的提高,人們的生育觀念轉(zhuǎn)變,多子不再是多福的象征;二是婦女地位的提高和就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)的增多,使她們主動(dòng)優(yōu)生優(yōu)育,不愿因多育造成拖累;三是城市住房短缺以及房價(jià)不斷上漲,給移民和新就業(yè)者以較大的經(jīng)濟(jì)壓力,不得不晚婚晚育;四是子女撫養(yǎng)成本的提高成為中低收入群體生育決策時(shí)需要考慮的重要因素。有媒體報(bào)道“在北京生養(yǎng)孩子的成本為276萬元”[25]。
4政策討論和結(jié)論
4.1黨的十八屆三中全會(huì)對人口政策的重大調(diào)整非常及時(shí)和必要從資源環(huán)境的承載力來說,較小的人口規(guī)模有利于環(huán)境保護(hù)和資源的可持續(xù)利用。我國人口增長率雖降低了,但城市化改變了人們的生活方式,消費(fèi)水平的提高增加了個(gè)體的消費(fèi)量,溫室氣體排放和對環(huán)境影響加大。保羅·埃里奇提出了I=PTA 的等式(環(huán)境影響=人口·技術(shù)·消費(fèi)),即使人口實(shí)現(xiàn)了“零增長”,人民生活水平的改善仍然會(huì)增加資源環(huán)境的壓力。目前,我國石油和天然氣的對外依存度分別達(dá)到57%和32% [26],人均水資源、人均耕地分別只有全球平均水平的 1/4和2/5(2011年世界銀行數(shù)據(jù)計(jì)算)[27]。2000年以來,鐵、錳、銅、鎳、鋁、鉛、鋅、鉻、鉀等主要礦產(chǎn)的進(jìn)口量迅速增加。人地關(guān)系十分緊張,繼續(xù)控制人口增長是必要的。
另一方面,人口既是消費(fèi)者,也是生產(chǎn)者。勞動(dòng)年齡人口占總?cè)丝诒戎剌^大,撫養(yǎng)率比較低,有利于經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展。根據(jù)國家統(tǒng)計(jì)局公布的數(shù)據(jù),2012年我國15-59歲勞動(dòng)年齡人口在相當(dāng)長時(shí)期里第一次出現(xiàn)了絕對下降,比上年減少345萬人。表明我國的人口紅利正趨于消失。家庭撫養(yǎng)負(fù)擔(dān)的加重使得儲蓄率降低,減少了建設(shè)投資,都會(huì)影響經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展。為避免人口老齡化帶來的勞動(dòng)力供給不足和巨大的撫養(yǎng)負(fù)擔(dān),人口仍需要保持一定規(guī)模的增長。
黨的十八屆三中全會(huì)對我國人口政策做出了重大調(diào)整,提出“堅(jiān)持計(jì)劃生育的基本國策,啟動(dòng)實(shí)施一方是獨(dú)生子女的夫婦可生育兩個(gè)孩子的政策,逐步調(diào)整完善生育政策,促進(jìn)人口長期均衡發(fā)展”。 這種調(diào)整非常及時(shí)和必要。
4.2人口政策進(jìn)一步調(diào)整和完善
“一方是獨(dú)生子女的夫婦可生育兩個(gè)孩子的政策”,不僅可以降低家庭的性別偏好,緩解性別比例失調(diào)的問題;還可以減少相關(guān)家庭出現(xiàn)失獨(dú)現(xiàn)象,保障更多的家庭幸褔;而且能夠改變通過代際資產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移的差異而產(chǎn)生的貧富差距的擴(kuò)大。這有利于解決一胎政策帶來的一系列社會(huì)問題。
進(jìn)一步調(diào)整和完善人口政策,還需要從以下幾個(gè)方面考慮:
(1)各地區(qū)、各民族應(yīng)實(shí)行統(tǒng)一的生育政策。城市人口素質(zhì)較高,撫養(yǎng)能力較強(qiáng),特別是經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化二個(gè)方面條件較好,有利于子女教育。城市嚴(yán)、農(nóng)村寬的人口政策使得新增人口中低素質(zhì)的人口比例增加。我們一方面在努力推進(jìn)人口的城市化,另一方面又在制約城市人口增長、擴(kuò)大農(nóng)村人口。這不僅增大了城市化的社會(huì)成本,也拉長了城市化過程。我國多數(shù)民族地區(qū)雖然地廣人稀,但自然條件較差,資源環(huán)境的承載力低,經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì)欠發(fā)達(dá)。漢族嚴(yán)、少數(shù)民族寬的人口政策不利于民族地區(qū)人口素質(zhì)的提高和生態(tài)環(huán)境的改善,影響到地區(qū)發(fā)展。因此,各地區(qū)、各民族應(yīng)實(shí)行統(tǒng)一的生育政策,把發(fā)揮政策效應(yīng)的重點(diǎn)放在農(nóng)村[28],特別要重視貧困地區(qū)、民族地區(qū)人口素質(zhì)的提高。
(2)在堅(jiān)持計(jì)劃生育的基本國策時(shí),逐步減弱政策約束,增強(qiáng)內(nèi)部約束。黨的十八屆三中全會(huì)明確了市場在資源配置中的決定性作用。在控制人口增長的過程中,應(yīng)逐步弱化政策的約束效應(yīng),以低于人口更替水平(總和生育率為2.1) 來設(shè)計(jì)政策控制目標(biāo)。在更大程度上由家庭根據(jù)自己的意愿來選擇一胎生育或二胎生育,強(qiáng)化城市化的約束效應(yīng),讓其成為主導(dǎo)因素。將約束人口增長的機(jī)制由政策強(qiáng)制變?yōu)榧彝ブ鲃?dòng)意愿,把外部約束轉(zhuǎn)化為內(nèi)部約束,降低控制人口增長的行政成本,減少社會(huì)矛盾。
(3)創(chuàng)造更加公平、合理和人性化的制度環(huán)境和平臺,有序推進(jìn)城市化過程。要基于國土空間主體功能區(qū)的規(guī)劃,通過非農(nóng)產(chǎn)業(yè)的培育和城鎮(zhèn)的規(guī)劃建設(shè)來促進(jìn)人口向城鎮(zhèn)的適度聚集。在努力增加就業(yè)的同時(shí),創(chuàng)造更好的制度環(huán)境,為新進(jìn)入城市的移民提供完善的公共服務(wù),不斷改善影響移民的住房、子女教育、社會(huì)保障、社會(huì)融合等實(shí)際問題, 實(shí)現(xiàn)農(nóng)民工“常住化城鎮(zhèn)化”[29]。
4.3本文的貢獻(xiàn)和不足
本文是在參考大量相關(guān)研究成果的基礎(chǔ)上完成的。貢獻(xiàn)在于,一是把約束我國人口增長的因素歸結(jié)為政策效應(yīng)和城市化效應(yīng)二部分,前者為外部約束,后者為內(nèi)部約束(即家庭主動(dòng)節(jié)育)。把二方面的效應(yīng)結(jié)合起來討論,并分三個(gè)階段來說明影響人口增長率下降的主導(dǎo)因素;二是參照17個(gè)新興工業(yè)化國家和發(fā)展中國家的情況,計(jì)算了不實(shí)行計(jì)劃生育政策下我國人口的數(shù)量,并與實(shí)際人口相比較估算出約束人口增長的政策效應(yīng)。三是基于城鄉(xiāng)人口自然增長率存在差異的推論,計(jì)算出由于移民減少的出生人口累計(jì)達(dá)750.7萬人;四是提出了把約束人口增長的機(jī)制由政策強(qiáng)制變?yōu)榧彝ブ鲃?dòng)意愿等政策建議。本文的不足是還難以對政策效應(yīng)和城市化效應(yīng)精確定量,需要進(jìn)一步探索。
4.4結(jié)論
我國約束人口增長的因素可簡化為生育政策和城市化二部分。多年來,城市嚴(yán)、農(nóng)村寬的人口政策不利于人口素質(zhì)和城市化水平的提高。1978年以來由農(nóng)村到城市移民累計(jì)減少的出生人口達(dá)750.7萬人,相當(dāng)于近年來全國一年的凈增人口。新增城市人口的63%來自移民和當(dāng)?shù)氐摹稗r(nóng)轉(zhuǎn)非”。1960-2012年17個(gè)新興工業(yè)化國家和發(fā)展中國家的城市化過程、人口自然增長率和綜合生育率的變化與我國具有共同趨勢,特別是印度尼西亞與我國具有較高的相似性。參照這些國家的情況,估算出在沒有實(shí)施計(jì)劃生育政策的假設(shè)條件下我國人口自然增長率可由1972年的24.57‰下降到2012年的10.0‰-12.0‰,可視為城市化約束人口增長的效應(yīng)。這個(gè)估計(jì)值與2012年我國實(shí)際的人口自然增長率4.87‰之差,可視為計(jì)劃生育的政策效應(yīng),減少出生人口3.44億-4.14億人。1972-1980年是政策效應(yīng)時(shí)期,1980-1995年是以政策效應(yīng)為主、城市化效應(yīng)為輔的時(shí)期,1995-2012年為城市化效應(yīng)和政策效應(yīng)并重的時(shí)期。
黨的十八屆三中全會(huì)對人口政策的重大調(diào)整非常及時(shí)和必要,但需要充分發(fā)揮城市化的效應(yīng),把約束人口增長的機(jī)制由政策強(qiáng)制變?yōu)榧彝ブ鲃?dòng)意愿。
(編輯:于杰)
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[27]世界銀行公開數(shù)據(jù)[DB]. http://data.worldbank.org.cn/. [Public Data of World Bank[DB]. http://data.worldbank.org.cn/.]
[28]李仲生. 人口經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)[M]. 北京:清華大學(xué)出版社,2006. [Li Zhongsheng. Population Economics [M]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2006.]
[29]張翼.農(nóng)民工“進(jìn)城落戶”意愿與中國近期城鎮(zhèn)化道路的選擇[J]. 中國人口科學(xué),2011,(2):14-26.[Zhang Yi.Migrant Workers Willing of Hukou Register and Policy Choice of China Urbanization [J]. Chinese Journal of Population Science, 2011, (2):14-26.]
Urbanization: Population Growth Constraint and Policy Implications
NIU ShuwenLAN ZhongchengHU Yuanyuan
(College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Gansu 730000,China)
AbstractThere is a significantly correlation between urbanization process and the decline of natural population growth rate. China is in an important period of urbanization accelerating, the decline of population growth not only created favorable conditions for Chinas modernization, but also brought a series of issues need to be considered and resolved. Based on the fact that the fertility rate of urban population is significantly lower than that of the rural population, and the proportion of urban population accounting for total population rises rapidly in China, this article makes four inferences, and analyzes the possible scenarios that population number and structure changes in urban and rural areas. The factors that restrain Chinas population growth can be integrated into policy effect and urbanization effect two parts, the former can be considered as the external constraint, and the latter can be considered as the internal constraints (i.e., family active birth control). Referring to the cases of 17 newly industrialized countries and developing countries that have same trend with China in the urbanization process and population growth, this paper estimates the policy effect and the urbanization effect restraining Chinas population growth during 1972-2012 in China by analogy method. The results show that the former makes the natural population growth rate dropping from 24.57‰ to 10.0 ‰-12.0‰, the latter further the growth rate dropping to 4.87 ‰ and reduces accumulatively birth population 344 million-414 million. The effect of internal and external factors can be divided into three stages to analyze, net policy effect period(1972-1980),the period of main policy effect and secondary urbanization effect(1980-1995), and the period that both are equally important(1995-2012). For 40 years, the policy effect has gone from strong to weak, in contrast, the urbanization effect from weak to strong. In new stage of development, it is necessary to continue to control population growth for relieving the population pressure on resources and environment. On the other hand, in order to avoid the many problems of population aging, it is necessary to maintain suitable population growth. Significant adjustments for population policy made in the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee is very timely and necessary. But it is also necessary to adhere to the basic state policy on family planning, meanwhile, gradually weaken the policy constraints and strengthen the internal constraints, and give full play to the urbanization effect. The unified family planning policy should be conducted in all regions and all ethnic groups. The mechanisms restraining population growth should be changed from the policy enforcement to family willing. A more fair, reasonable and humanized institutional environment and platform should be created, and the urbanization process is pushed orderly.
Key wordsurbanization; population growth; constraint mechanism; population policy
[15]Ye W Z. Chinas ‘later Marriage Policy and Its Demographic Consequences [J]. Population Research and Policy Review, 1992,11(1):51-71.
[16]許抄軍,羅能生. 中國的城市化與人口遷移:2000年以來的實(shí)證研究[J]. 統(tǒng)計(jì)研究,2008,25(2):46-51. [Xu Chaojun, Luo Nengsheng. Urbanization and Migration in China: An Empirical Analysis Since 2000 [J]. Statistical Research, 2008, 25(2):46-51.]
[17]Cai Y. Chinas Belowreplacement Fertility: Government Policy or Socioeconomic Development?[J].Population and Development Review, 2010, 36(3):419-440.
[18]陳友華. 中國人口與發(fā)展:問題與反思[M]. 北京:中國社會(huì)科學(xué)出版社,2012. [Chen Youhua. Population and Development of China: Issues and Reflections [M]. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2012.]
[19]牛叔文,李怡涵,馬利邦,等. 資源環(huán)境約束下的中國人口增長問題研究[J]. 中國人口·資源與環(huán)境,2010,20(3):253-256. [Niu Shuwen, Li Yihan, Ma Libang, et al. Population Growth and Its Control Under the Limit of Resources and Environment in China [J]. China Population, Resources and Environment, 2010, 20(3):253-256.]
[20]Chong H. The Impact of Population Aging on Income Inequality in Developing Countries: Evidencefrom Rural China [J]. China Economic Review, 2011, 22(1):98-107.
[21]辜勝阻. 城鎮(zhèn)化效應(yīng)與生育性別偏好[J]. 中國人口科學(xué),2005,(3):30-37. [Gu Shengzu. UrbanizationEffects and Gender Preference [J]. Chinese Journal of Population Science, 2005,(3):30-37.]
[22]王夢婕,張昢昢. 失獨(dú)家庭生存狀況調(diào)查:我們的晚年何處安放[N]. 中國青年報(bào),2013-1-2.[WangMengjie, Zhang Popo. Survey on Lose Onechild Households Living Conditions: Where to Put Our Old Age [N]. China Youth Daily, 2013-1-2.]
[23]Zhang K H, Song S F. Ruralurban Migration and Urbanization in China: Evidence from Timeseries and Crosssection Analyses [J]. China Economic Review, 2003, 14(4):386-400.
[24]盧向虎,王永剛. 中國“鄉(xiāng)—城”人口遷移規(guī)模的測算與分析(1979-2003)[J]. 西北人口,2006,(1):14-16. [Lu Xianghu, Wang Yonggang. Estimation and Analysis on Chinese Ruralurban Migration Size [J]. Northwest Population, 2006, (1):14-16. ]
[25]郭璐,李薇. 大城市生活真這么“貴”嗎?[N]. 人民網(wǎng)—人民日報(bào),2013-8-16. [Guo Lu, Li Wei.Is Life Really So ‘Expensive in Big city? [N]PeoplePeoples Daily, 2013-8-16.]
[26]中華人民共和國國務(wù)院新聞辦公室. 中國的能源政策(2012)白皮書[R]. 北京,2012. http://www.scio.gov.cn. [Information Office of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China.Chinas Energy Policy 2012[R]. Beijing, 2012. http://www.scio.gov.cn.]
[27]世界銀行公開數(shù)據(jù)[DB]. http://data.worldbank.org.cn/. [Public Data of World Bank[DB]. http://data.worldbank.org.cn/.]
[28]李仲生. 人口經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)[M]. 北京:清華大學(xué)出版社,2006. [Li Zhongsheng. Population Economics [M]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2006.]
[29]張翼.農(nóng)民工“進(jìn)城落戶”意愿與中國近期城鎮(zhèn)化道路的選擇[J]. 中國人口科學(xué),2011,(2):14-26.[Zhang Yi.Migrant Workers Willing of Hukou Register and Policy Choice of China Urbanization [J]. Chinese Journal of Population Science, 2011, (2):14-26.]
Urbanization: Population Growth Constraint and Policy Implications
NIU ShuwenLAN ZhongchengHU Yuanyuan
(College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Gansu 730000,China)
AbstractThere is a significantly correlation between urbanization process and the decline of natural population growth rate. China is in an important period of urbanization accelerating, the decline of population growth not only created favorable conditions for Chinas modernization, but also brought a series of issues need to be considered and resolved. Based on the fact that the fertility rate of urban population is significantly lower than that of the rural population, and the proportion of urban population accounting for total population rises rapidly in China, this article makes four inferences, and analyzes the possible scenarios that population number and structure changes in urban and rural areas. The factors that restrain Chinas population growth can be integrated into policy effect and urbanization effect two parts, the former can be considered as the external constraint, and the latter can be considered as the internal constraints (i.e., family active birth control). Referring to the cases of 17 newly industrialized countries and developing countries that have same trend with China in the urbanization process and population growth, this paper estimates the policy effect and the urbanization effect restraining Chinas population growth during 1972-2012 in China by analogy method. The results show that the former makes the natural population growth rate dropping from 24.57‰ to 10.0 ‰-12.0‰, the latter further the growth rate dropping to 4.87 ‰ and reduces accumulatively birth population 344 million-414 million. The effect of internal and external factors can be divided into three stages to analyze, net policy effect period(1972-1980),the period of main policy effect and secondary urbanization effect(1980-1995), and the period that both are equally important(1995-2012). For 40 years, the policy effect has gone from strong to weak, in contrast, the urbanization effect from weak to strong. In new stage of development, it is necessary to continue to control population growth for relieving the population pressure on resources and environment. On the other hand, in order to avoid the many problems of population aging, it is necessary to maintain suitable population growth. Significant adjustments for population policy made in the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee is very timely and necessary. But it is also necessary to adhere to the basic state policy on family planning, meanwhile, gradually weaken the policy constraints and strengthen the internal constraints, and give full play to the urbanization effect. The unified family planning policy should be conducted in all regions and all ethnic groups. The mechanisms restraining population growth should be changed from the policy enforcement to family willing. A more fair, reasonable and humanized institutional environment and platform should be created, and the urbanization process is pushed orderly.
Key wordsurbanization; population growth; constraint mechanism; population policy
[15]Ye W Z. Chinas ‘later Marriage Policy and Its Demographic Consequences [J]. Population Research and Policy Review, 1992,11(1):51-71.
[16]許抄軍,羅能生. 中國的城市化與人口遷移:2000年以來的實(shí)證研究[J]. 統(tǒng)計(jì)研究,2008,25(2):46-51. [Xu Chaojun, Luo Nengsheng. Urbanization and Migration in China: An Empirical Analysis Since 2000 [J]. Statistical Research, 2008, 25(2):46-51.]
[17]Cai Y. Chinas Belowreplacement Fertility: Government Policy or Socioeconomic Development?[J].Population and Development Review, 2010, 36(3):419-440.
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Urbanization: Population Growth Constraint and Policy Implications
NIU ShuwenLAN ZhongchengHU Yuanyuan
(College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Gansu 730000,China)
AbstractThere is a significantly correlation between urbanization process and the decline of natural population growth rate. China is in an important period of urbanization accelerating, the decline of population growth not only created favorable conditions for Chinas modernization, but also brought a series of issues need to be considered and resolved. Based on the fact that the fertility rate of urban population is significantly lower than that of the rural population, and the proportion of urban population accounting for total population rises rapidly in China, this article makes four inferences, and analyzes the possible scenarios that population number and structure changes in urban and rural areas. The factors that restrain Chinas population growth can be integrated into policy effect and urbanization effect two parts, the former can be considered as the external constraint, and the latter can be considered as the internal constraints (i.e., family active birth control). Referring to the cases of 17 newly industrialized countries and developing countries that have same trend with China in the urbanization process and population growth, this paper estimates the policy effect and the urbanization effect restraining Chinas population growth during 1972-2012 in China by analogy method. The results show that the former makes the natural population growth rate dropping from 24.57‰ to 10.0 ‰-12.0‰, the latter further the growth rate dropping to 4.87 ‰ and reduces accumulatively birth population 344 million-414 million. The effect of internal and external factors can be divided into three stages to analyze, net policy effect period(1972-1980),the period of main policy effect and secondary urbanization effect(1980-1995), and the period that both are equally important(1995-2012). For 40 years, the policy effect has gone from strong to weak, in contrast, the urbanization effect from weak to strong. In new stage of development, it is necessary to continue to control population growth for relieving the population pressure on resources and environment. On the other hand, in order to avoid the many problems of population aging, it is necessary to maintain suitable population growth. Significant adjustments for population policy made in the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee is very timely and necessary. But it is also necessary to adhere to the basic state policy on family planning, meanwhile, gradually weaken the policy constraints and strengthen the internal constraints, and give full play to the urbanization effect. The unified family planning policy should be conducted in all regions and all ethnic groups. The mechanisms restraining population growth should be changed from the policy enforcement to family willing. A more fair, reasonable and humanized institutional environment and platform should be created, and the urbanization process is pushed orderly.
Key wordsurbanization; population growth; constraint mechanism; population policy