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膀胱癌病因?qū)W研究進(jìn)展

2014-08-15 00:47:37白云金李金洪魏強(qiáng)綜述韓平審校
現(xiàn)代泌尿外科雜志 2014年10期
關(guān)鍵詞:致癌物易感性吸煙者

白云金,李金洪,魏強(qiáng)綜述,韓平審校

(四川大學(xué)華西醫(yī)院泌尿外科,四川成都 610041)

膀胱癌是危害人類生命和健康的常見惡性腫瘤,據(jù)估計(jì)2014年美國膀胱癌新發(fā)病例為74 690例,死亡病例為15 580例[1],我國2003~2007年總體發(fā)病率為6.69/10萬,死亡率為2.53/10萬,呈逐漸上升趨勢[2]。膀胱癌發(fā)生發(fā)展是多因素、多步驟復(fù)雜變化過程,近年國內(nèi)外學(xué)者對膀胱癌病因進(jìn)行大量研究,認(rèn)為膀胱癌的發(fā)生與致癌物的長期慢性刺激密切相關(guān),目前已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)的膀胱發(fā)病危險(xiǎn)因素包括吸煙、相關(guān)職業(yè)暴露、飲食、長期使用某些藥物、性別以及基因多態(tài)性等。本文就膀胱癌病因?qū)W研究進(jìn)展予以綜述。

1 遺傳易感性

致癌物致癌作用需多種酶參與,而這些酶在人群中呈多態(tài)性分布,對致癌物解毒作用各異。N-乙酰轉(zhuǎn)移酶(N-acetyltran sferase,NAT)的激活與芳香胺乙?;芮邢嚓P(guān)。人體中NAT 編碼基因有NAT1和NAT2兩種。NAT1與膀胱癌易感性無關(guān),NAT2乙?;徛呋及螂装茁矢撸谖鼰熑巳褐懈鼮轱@著[3]。谷胱甘肽-S-轉(zhuǎn)移酶(Glutathione S-transferases,GSTs)是多環(huán)芳烴解毒的重要基因。在GSTs超家族中,有功能的類型為GSTM1、GSTP1 和GSTT1。GSTM1缺失1拷貝和2拷貝患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分別增加1.2、1.9倍[4]。低活性GSTA1吸煙者患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是高活性非吸煙者3.5倍[5]。在吸煙人群中,GSTA/M1 相互作用亦會增加患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。GSTP1基因第105位密碼子若為纈氨酸則會增加膀胱癌易感性,尤其是高級別或浸潤性膀胱癌,GSTM1和GSTT1基因缺失會降低機(jī)體對致癌物質(zhì)解毒作用,增加患膀胱癌的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[6]。

內(nèi)源性和外源性因素均可影響DNA 穩(wěn)定性。DNA 修復(fù)在保持其穩(wěn)定性過程中起重要作用。切除修復(fù)交叉互補(bǔ)基因4(excision repair cross-complementing gene,ERCC4)和ERCC2多態(tài)性均與膀胱癌易感性相關(guān)[7-8]。X 射線交叉互補(bǔ)基因1(XRCC1)R399QQ 基因型可降低吸煙者膀胱癌易感性,而XRCC1R194W 和R280H 多態(tài)性增加膀胱癌易感性[9]。SOBTI等[10]發(fā)現(xiàn)著 色性干皮病基因XPD Gln等位基因會增加膀胱癌易感性,尤其是吸煙和飲酒者。

凋亡是維持內(nèi)環(huán)境穩(wěn)定的重要環(huán)節(jié),若此過程紊亂可導(dǎo)致腫瘤形成。FAS及其配體FASL 是傳遞凋亡信號重要組成部分。研究證實(shí)FAS-1377AA 基因多態(tài)性會增加患癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[11]。死亡受體4(death receptor 4,DR4)亦是調(diào)節(jié)凋亡重要組成部分,其功能喪失可誘發(fā)膀胱癌,與吸煙具有協(xié)同效應(yīng)[12]。CAPS8是細(xì)胞內(nèi)抑制細(xì)胞過度增殖的關(guān)鍵防御機(jī)制。CASP8-652 6N 插入或缺失基因型可降低患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。

MicroRNAs 是調(diào)節(jié)基因表達(dá)的非編碼單鏈RNA,異常表達(dá)與癌癥發(fā)生和臨床結(jié)局密切相關(guān)。MicroRNAs通過調(diào)節(jié)原癌基因和抑癌基因影響腫瘤發(fā)生。miR-146ars2910164C等位基因可降低膀胱癌易感性,而GC/CC 基因型可降低膀胱癌復(fù)發(fā)率[13]。Toll樣受體(Toll-like receptors,TLRs)是免疫受體分子,是機(jī)體免疫系統(tǒng)中重要物質(zhì)。研究顯示TLR2可能與膀胱癌易感性相關(guān)。

2 環(huán)境因素

2.1 吸煙與被動吸煙 吸煙是膀胱癌主要致病因素,據(jù)估計(jì)50%膀胱癌與吸煙有關(guān),香煙煙霧中含有大約60種致癌物,大多數(shù)為芳香胺和多環(huán)芳香烴。據(jù)統(tǒng)計(jì),既往吸煙者患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是非吸煙者2.2倍,而目前吸煙者是非吸煙者4.1倍[14]。

吸煙方式不同、煙草種類不同,患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)亦不相同。黑色煙草含高濃度萘胺和亞硝胺,比吸金黃色煙草煙民患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)高,后者戒煙時(shí)間越長風(fēng)險(xiǎn)越低,前者無此效應(yīng)[15]。吸未過濾香煙比吸過濾香煙煙民膀胱癌罹患風(fēng)險(xiǎn)高50%,將煙霧吸入胸腔者則更高[14]。吸煙不僅影響膀胱癌發(fā)病率,同時(shí)也影響膀胱癌分級分期和預(yù)后。與非吸煙膀胱癌患者相比,吸煙者呈高分級、高分期,且腫瘤特異性死亡率高,然而戒煙可改善預(yù)后,50歲前戒煙可降低50%患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[16]。目前關(guān)于被動吸煙是否增加膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)尚無定論。有研究證實(shí)被動吸煙是非吸煙女性患膀胱癌危險(xiǎn)因素[17],但Meta分析顯示二者并無關(guān)系[17]。被動吸煙可部分解釋有腫瘤家族史者患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)升高。

2.2 職業(yè)暴露 職業(yè)暴露是除吸煙之外另一明確危險(xiǎn)因素,所涉及行業(yè)包括燃料、染料、橡膠、皮革、理發(fā)、卡車司機(jī)等,據(jù)估計(jì)約20%膀胱癌是由職業(yè)性暴露因素所致[15]。其主要致癌物質(zhì)為芳香胺,潛伏期約30~50年,大劑量、長時(shí)間接觸可縮短潛伏期。目前工作條件改善,使職業(yè)相關(guān)膀胱癌發(fā)病率降低。近期研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在男性中僅7.1%膀胱癌與職業(yè)暴露相關(guān),這說明職業(yè)性膀胱癌是可預(yù)防的。美發(fā)師暴露于芳香胺等致癌物,其患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加,但個(gè)人使用染發(fā)劑與膀胱癌易感性無關(guān)[19]。由于男性農(nóng)業(yè)工作者長期接觸農(nóng)藥其患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)亦會增加[17],這與醌氧化還原酶(quinone oxidoreductases,NQO1)和超氧化物歧化酶(SOD2)基因多態(tài)性相關(guān)[20]。

2.3 空氣污染 在歐洲最主要環(huán)境污染物是顆粒物(particulate matter,PM),90%~95%人口生活在PM2.5高于WHO 空氣質(zhì)量標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的環(huán)境中。全球成人死亡率部分可歸因于暴露于PM2.5 超標(biāo)環(huán)境。PM2.5主要通過刺激機(jī)體產(chǎn)生炎癥反應(yīng),釋放活性氧,破壞DNA 或直接誘導(dǎo)突變導(dǎo)致癌變[21]。有機(jī)染料燃燒可產(chǎn)生大量多環(huán)芳香烴,國際癌癥研究機(jī)構(gòu)已將柴油廢氣列入人類致癌物質(zhì)之一,暴露于尾氣中的司機(jī)、郵遞員、燃?xì)庹竟ぷ魅藛T等人群膀胱癌發(fā)病率會上升[22]?;蚨鄳B(tài)性亦可予以個(gè)體對固體燃料煙霧易感性[21]。最近PARENT等[23]證實(shí)交通相關(guān) 污染空氣中的NO2會增加患前列腺癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。

3 基因與基因、環(huán)境相互作用

基因與環(huán)境相互作用是人類保持健康和疾病發(fā)生的基礎(chǔ)?;蛲蛔儠绊憴C(jī)體對營養(yǎng)素的利用而增加患癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。GOERLITZ等[24]證 實(shí)NQO1 和SOD2基因多態(tài)性通過調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)體氧化反應(yīng)而影響機(jī)體對吸煙和血吸蟲等致癌因素的易感性。IL-6變體基因型增加煙民膀胱癌易感性[25]。在膀胱癌病因?qū)W研究中,基因與基因之間相互作用也有報(bào)道。CHEN等[26]研究發(fā)現(xiàn)CCNH V270A、ERCC6 M1097V 和RAD23BA249V 之間相互作用使得患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加,是這些位點(diǎn)等位基因型的30倍。在中國人群中,IL-13C-1055T和IL-13Arg130Gln相互作用使吸煙者膀胱癌發(fā)病率增加[27]。

4 液體攝入與飲食

從暴露于致癌物到癌癥形成這一過程可被諸多因素干預(yù)、破壞。ZHOU等[28]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),攝入大量液體增加排尿次數(shù),可減少致癌物與膀胱上皮接觸,從而降低患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。但污染液體攝入會增加患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn),其原因在于尿液增多時(shí)膀胱膨脹,致癌物與上皮緊密接觸,同時(shí)液體攝入增多意味著致癌物攝入增多;另外稀釋的尿液將掩蓋血尿癥狀,降低腫瘤發(fā)現(xiàn)機(jī)會。Meta分析證實(shí)飲用30年經(jīng)氯消毒的自來水且水中三鹵甲烷≥25μg/L 時(shí),可增加膀胱癌發(fā)病率[29]。目前已明確飲用水中砷濃度≥50μg/L 會增加患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。最近研究發(fā)現(xiàn)血中砷濃度≥7 μg/L時(shí),膀胱癌罹患風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加2~3 倍[30];高暴露(≥335μg/L)40年后,其危險(xiǎn)度仍相當(dāng)高(OR=6.83,95%CI3.84~12.32)[31],且與吸煙具有協(xié)同效應(yīng)。

不同種類液體攝入對膀胱癌發(fā)病率影響不盡相同。大量攝入茶可增加吸煙者膀胱癌發(fā)病率,但攝入黑茶對女性起保護(hù)作用[32]。對于亞洲人群飲用牛奶和綠茶可降低膀胱癌發(fā)病率[33-34]??Х群姹哼^程中可產(chǎn)生致癌性多環(huán)芳烴,但研究表明二者并無關(guān)系[35],甚至有研究認(rèn)為每天增加一杯咖啡可降低3%患癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[36]。目前認(rèn)為酒精攝入與膀胱癌無關(guān)[37]。

近年來,有關(guān)飲食對膀胱癌的影響倍受人們關(guān)注,已有研究調(diào)查二者關(guān)系。多數(shù)研究顯示大量攝入水果和蔬菜起保護(hù)作用,十字花科蔬菜和柑橘類水果最為顯著[38],這與攝入食物中微量元素、維生素和抗氧化劑有關(guān)。研究證實(shí)大量攝入硒元素可通過抗氧化、調(diào)節(jié)免疫應(yīng)答、誘導(dǎo)凋亡等機(jī)制降低膀胱癌發(fā)病率[39]。目前中國人飲食已向高能量、高脂肪、低纖維轉(zhuǎn)變。肉類攝入是膀胱癌危險(xiǎn)因素,攝入越多危險(xiǎn)性越高,紅肉和加工肉分別增加17%、10%患癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[40]。一般認(rèn)為攝入魚類能降低膀胱癌致病風(fēng)險(xiǎn),但研究認(rèn)為二者并無關(guān)系[41]。

5 藥 物

糖尿?。╠iabetes mellitus,DM)、肥胖是癌癥的危險(xiǎn)因素,這與胰島素、胰島素樣生長因子(insulinlike growth factor,IGF)和炎癥相關(guān)。據(jù)估計(jì)DM 可使膀胱癌發(fā)病率增加29%[42]。DM 治療藥物與癌癥亦具有相關(guān)性。吡格列酮和胰島素可增加膀胱癌發(fā)病風(fēng)險(xiǎn),羅格列酮和二甲雙胍與膀胱癌無關(guān),其中二甲雙胍主要降低消化道腫瘤發(fā)病率[43-46]。在美國肥胖已是普遍存在的健康問題,2/3成年人體重超標(biāo)。Meta分析[47]顯示肥胖可增加患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn),與糖尿病有關(guān),因多數(shù)T2DM 伴肥胖。

目前非甾體類解熱鎮(zhèn)痛藥(non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs,NSAIDs)應(yīng)用較為廣泛,與膀胱癌發(fā)病密切相關(guān)。非阿司匹林NSAIDs可降低非吸煙者43%患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[48]。最新發(fā)現(xiàn)服用布洛芬可降低患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn),服用長達(dá)10年者尤為顯著[49]。另外,馬兜鈴酸不僅可導(dǎo)致腎損害,而且可導(dǎo)致尿路上皮癌。YANG等[50]研究證實(shí)接觸含馬兜鈴酸中草藥者患尿路上皮癌的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)增加(HR=2.4,95%CI1.1~5.3,P=0.03),且此關(guān)系獨(dú)立于吸煙和飲用水中砷的暴露。

6 性 別

膀胱癌發(fā)病與預(yù)后存在明顯性別差異,男女之比約為4∶1。吸煙、職業(yè)暴露等危險(xiǎn)因素可部分解釋該差異;前列腺增生引起尿潴留,使尿液中致癌物與膀胱黏膜接觸時(shí)間延長,也可部分解釋該差異。目前眾多學(xué)者認(rèn)為性激素及其受體是主要原因。已明確在膀胱組織中存在雄激素受體和雌激素受體。在N-丁基(4-羥丁基)亞硝胺誘導(dǎo)下,敲除AR 的小鼠未患膀胱癌,而未敲除者50%患病。表皮生長因子可通過PI3K/AKT 和MAPK 通路激活其受體加強(qiáng)雄激素受體反式激活[51],活化的雄激素受體調(diào)節(jié)p53-PCNA DNA 修復(fù)信號促進(jìn)膀胱癌發(fā)生[52]。

對于女性,雌激素與孕酮聯(lián)合替代治療和口服避孕藥對膀胱癌發(fā)病起保護(hù)作用,而單獨(dú)用雌激素?zé)o此現(xiàn)象[53]。在一定程度內(nèi)分娩次數(shù)越多、首胎分娩年齡越大者患膀胱癌幾率越低,這與暴露于雌激素時(shí)間有關(guān),時(shí)間越長風(fēng)險(xiǎn)越低。相對于未生產(chǎn)者,產(chǎn)2胎和≥3胎分別降低15%、24%患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn),在20歲之前分娩較20~24歲分娩風(fēng)險(xiǎn)高[54]。

7 感染與其他疾病

膀胱癌發(fā)生發(fā)展與尿路感染(urinary tract infections,UTIs)具有密切關(guān)系。70%~80%UTIs由E 大腸桿 菌引起,通過激 活NF-κB 通路誘 發(fā)膀胱癌[55]。在男性UTIs 中35%與HPV 感染有 關(guān)。HPV 感染使E2基因失活,導(dǎo)致E6、E7基因過度表達(dá),促進(jìn)細(xì)胞增殖誘發(fā)癌癥。Meta分析已報(bào)告HPV感染與膀胱癌相關(guān)(OR=2.13,95%CI1.54~2.95)[56]。長期放置尿管和埃及血吸蟲感染易誘發(fā)鱗狀細(xì)胞癌,主要由于感染細(xì)菌將尿液中硝酸鹽分解為亞硝酸鹽產(chǎn)生致癌作用。膀胱結(jié)石伴炎癥可增加患膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[57]。另外,盆腔放射可引起膀胱癌,如前列腺癌患者接受放療發(fā)生膀胱癌風(fēng)險(xiǎn)會增加[58]。

綜上所述,膀胱癌發(fā)生發(fā)展是一個(gè)復(fù)雜變化的過程,多種因素參與其中。更多的病因需進(jìn)一步明確,明確并控制膀胱癌致病因素,對降低膀胱癌的發(fā)病率和提高膀胱癌的生存率具有重要意義。

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