閆曉英,姜亞磊,狄 烊,孟天嬌綜述,金 宏,齊 玲審校
(吉林醫(yī)藥學(xué)院:1.2010級(jí)臨床本科班,2.實(shí)驗(yàn)中心,3.病理教研室,吉林 吉林 132013)
·綜 述·
腦缺血損傷后Ca2+超載引起神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡的機(jī)制
ThemechanismofCa2+overloadinducedneuronapoptosisaftercerebralischemiainjury
閆曉英1,姜亞磊1,狄 烊1,孟天嬌1綜述,金 宏2,齊 玲3*審校
(吉林醫(yī)藥學(xué)院:1.2010級(jí)臨床本科班,2.實(shí)驗(yàn)中心,3.病理教研室,吉林 吉林 132013)
腦缺血是神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的常見(jiàn)病,缺血后會(huì)發(fā)生再灌注損傷,而神經(jīng)細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+超載是導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞凋亡最主要的因素。Ca2+超載引起神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡的機(jī)制中線粒體途徑、內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)途徑和核酸內(nèi)切酶途徑最為重要,本文就這三方面進(jìn)行綜述。
腦缺血損傷;Ca2+超載;神經(jīng)細(xì)胞;凋亡
在這一途徑中,bcl-2家族、活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)等會(huì)影響凋亡的發(fā)生。bcl-2家族中bcl-2、bcl-xl等抑制凋亡,而bax、bad、bak、bik和bcl-xs等促進(jìn)凋亡。bcl-2主要分布在線粒體外膜、細(xì)胞核及內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)[5]。bcl-2家族對(duì)線粒體的調(diào)控作用主要體現(xiàn)在對(duì)MPTP形成的影響。目前認(rèn)為MPTP的開(kāi)放是引起細(xì)胞凋亡的直接原因,因此bcl-2家族對(duì)線粒體正常生理功能的維持是十分重要的。此外,ROS也可影響線粒體。研究表明,線粒體是ROS的主要來(lái)源和促凋亡作用靶點(diǎn),少量ROS可能誘導(dǎo)MPTP開(kāi)放,促進(jìn)線粒體產(chǎn)生ROS,所以ROS升高既是MPTP開(kāi)放的原因也是結(jié)果,它們組成了一個(gè)大的環(huán)路,導(dǎo)致胞內(nèi)Ca2+重新分布。另外,ROS通過(guò)影響電壓依賴性Ca2+通道、非特異性細(xì)胞膜Ca2+通透性變化和Na+-Ca2+交換、調(diào)節(jié)的產(chǎn)生從而影響Ca2+從內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)釋放入線粒體。細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+升高可以激活其他酶進(jìn)一步增加氧自由基的水平,因此ROS可以間接產(chǎn)生更多的氧化物進(jìn)一步促進(jìn)線粒體內(nèi)氧化水平升高。一些文獻(xiàn)表明,線粒體途徑中與神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡有關(guān)的因素除了Cyt c、Smac、IAP、Apaf-1及caspases之外,絲氨酸蛋白酶/線粒體絲氨酸蛋白酶抗原(High temperature requirement protein A 2,HtrA2/Omi)和核酸內(nèi)切酶(endonuclease G,Endo G)也很重要[6]。HtrA2通過(guò)可以抑制IAP和增加caspases活性,或者取決于它的絲氨酸蛋白酶活性和caspases依賴[7-8]。Endo G是一種由線粒體編碼的酶,它可以配合核酸外切酶對(duì)DNA進(jìn)行破壞,最終引起細(xì)胞凋亡[9]。如果將bcl-2基因?qū)肷窠?jīng)細(xì)胞,可以減小梗死灶的面積[10];給藥干擾bax/bcl-2的比率也可以減輕細(xì)胞凋亡[11]。因而,維持bcl-2家族蛋白的平衡可以降低神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的凋亡程度。因此,抑制這些因素會(huì)降低細(xì)胞的凋亡,繼而減輕腦缺血損傷。
綜上所述,Ca2+超載可以通過(guò)線粒體途徑引起神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡,但其影響因素很多,如果能研究出避免或減少這些影響因素的藥物,保護(hù)線粒體,最終可以減輕腦缺血損傷的發(fā)生。
Ca2+超載引起神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡的機(jī)制中除了線粒體途徑,還有內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)途徑。內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)對(duì)于維持細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+平衡也很重要。它主要是通過(guò)應(yīng)激來(lái)調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞凋亡。在凋亡過(guò)程中,內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)途徑與線粒體途徑相似,也和bc1-2家族成員及caspases關(guān)系密切,但是它又有自己特殊的一面。
細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+超載導(dǎo)致內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)中Ca2+失衡繼而引起內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激的出現(xiàn),包括非折疊蛋白反應(yīng)(unfoiled protein reaction,UPR)和內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)超負(fù)荷反應(yīng)[12]。UPR是內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)介導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡研究較多的兩個(gè)機(jī)制之一[13]。它的啟動(dòng)在早期是自我保護(hù)作用,這使大部分蛋白質(zhì)合成停滯,減輕內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)負(fù)荷;加速內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)伴侶基因、蛋白質(zhì)表達(dá),如Bip/Crp78、鈣聯(lián)蛋白(Calnexin)和Grp94等協(xié)助蛋白質(zhì)折疊;發(fā)生內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)相關(guān)降解,清除不能正確折疊的蛋白質(zhì)等[14-16],從而積極重建細(xì)胞內(nèi)穩(wěn)態(tài)。Irels、PERK和ATF6是這一過(guò)程中重要的酶類,Irels與內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激之后信號(hào)調(diào)整及抑制蛋白翻譯相關(guān),PERK可以使所有的蛋白質(zhì)合成下調(diào),ATF6引起內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激元件基因啟動(dòng)子區(qū)域激活CHOP等基因。CHOP可以編碼DNA損傷蛋白,對(duì)DNA直接造成損傷,引起細(xì)胞凋亡[17];還可以與其家族中的其他轉(zhuǎn)錄因子結(jié)合,抑制基因的轉(zhuǎn)錄活性,使細(xì)胞停滯在G1/S期,使細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)抑制而進(jìn)入凋亡狀態(tài)。Paschen等[18]研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在腦缺血損傷過(guò)程中CHOP mRNA表達(dá)明顯增高。Tajivis等[19]研究也指出CHOP對(duì)腦缺血神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡有調(diào)控作用。從目前對(duì)CHOP的研究來(lái)看,它上游的誘導(dǎo)因子已經(jīng)清楚,但是受其控制的下游分子、影響CHOP表達(dá)的因素及它如何參與細(xì)胞凋亡通路的調(diào)節(jié)還不是很清楚。
內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)超負(fù)荷反應(yīng)以激活轉(zhuǎn)錄因子NF-κB為主要特點(diǎn),啟動(dòng)多種前炎性蛋白,包括誘導(dǎo)型一氧化氮合酶(iNOS)、環(huán)氧化酶(COX-2)、基質(zhì)金屬蛋白酶9(MMP-9)和細(xì)胞粘附分子等[2--23]的轉(zhuǎn)錄表達(dá),它們參與腦缺血后的神經(jīng)損傷、血腦屏障功能的破壞及炎癥反應(yīng),由此對(duì)凋亡進(jìn)行調(diào)控。NF-κB的激活可以調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞內(nèi)的氧化還原狀態(tài)[24]。Ca2+超載與氧化應(yīng)激就有密不可分的關(guān)系,由此可以猜測(cè)內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)超負(fù)荷反應(yīng)和細(xì)胞內(nèi)氧化應(yīng)激有一定關(guān)系。
DNA斷裂是凋亡的標(biāo)志,這一過(guò)程離不開(kāi)Endo G。Tominaga[25]認(rèn)為,缺血導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+濃度升高,升高的Ca2+首先出現(xiàn)在核內(nèi),從而激活核酸內(nèi)切酶引起凋亡。腦缺血后神經(jīng)細(xì)胞發(fā)生凋亡時(shí),染色質(zhì)DNA降解成為約180~200 bp亞單位或其倍數(shù)的DNA片段[26]。核酸內(nèi)切酶降解DNA過(guò)程與基因表達(dá)有關(guān)。文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,bcl-2基因家族、ced家族、p53及c-fos、c-jun等原癌基因都對(duì)凋亡過(guò)程有一定的調(diào)控作用[27-28]。上述基因編碼的細(xì)胞蛋白酶在細(xì)胞凋亡時(shí)被激活,使caspases激活,再進(jìn)一步裂解脫氧核糖核酸酶(caspase-activated deoxyribonuclease,CAD)的抑制物ICAD(對(duì)應(yīng)人DFF45),ICAD降解而使CAD激活,DNA斷裂,最終導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞凋亡[29]。Chen等[30]發(fā)現(xiàn)凋亡過(guò)程中的DNA降解是多個(gè)核酸內(nèi)切酶共同作用的結(jié)果,所以深入研究核酸內(nèi)切酶的作用機(jī)制將對(duì)控制DNA切除修復(fù)途徑而逆轉(zhuǎn)DNA的損失起到重要的作用。
總之,腦缺血后Ca2+超載引起神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡的機(jī)制是多方面的,它可以由多個(gè)信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)通路同時(shí)進(jìn)行的,同時(shí)可能在各個(gè)通路之間會(huì)交叉,所以治療腦缺血損傷時(shí)要注意。對(duì)腦缺血機(jī)制的研究可以對(duì)臨床腦缺血的防治起到前瞻性作用,有利于腦缺血損傷的預(yù)防及腦缺血疾病的治療。
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1673-2995(2013)04-0277-03
R363.1
A
1Ca2+超載引起神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡的線粒體途徑
吉林省教育廳項(xiàng)目(2012330);吉林醫(yī)藥學(xué)院大學(xué)生科研基金項(xiàng)目(201206).
閆曉英(1991-),女(漢族),在讀本科.
齊 玲(1974-),女(漢族),副教授,博士.
2013-05-06)
腦缺血損傷是指腦缺血再恢復(fù)血流后所引起的腦組織損傷,即腦缺血-再灌注損傷。缺血-再灌注損傷所導(dǎo)致的神經(jīng)細(xì)胞Ca2+超載是引起神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡的最主要因素。腦缺血后Ca2+進(jìn)入細(xì)胞內(nèi)增多,清除減少,細(xì)胞內(nèi)出現(xiàn)Ca2+超載,繼而觸發(fā)了一系列反應(yīng)從而導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞發(fā)生凋亡。Ca2+超載引起神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡主要通過(guò)線粒體途徑、內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)途徑和核酸內(nèi)切酶途徑。
神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡的機(jī)制十分復(fù)雜,Ca2+超載通過(guò)線粒體途徑使凋亡因子釋放到胞質(zhì)中進(jìn)而啟動(dòng)細(xì)胞凋亡。當(dāng)細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+超載時(shí),線粒體膜的通透性會(huì)隨之改變,使得線粒體通透孔(mitochondrion permeability transition pore,MPTP)開(kāi)放[1]。MPTP的開(kāi)放允許大分子物質(zhì)通過(guò),這樣就導(dǎo)致前凋亡蛋白如細(xì)胞色素c(cytochrome C,Cyt c)、黃素蛋白凋亡誘導(dǎo)因子、核酸內(nèi)切酶及Smac(the second mitochondrial-derived activator of caspase)蛋白等一起釋放到細(xì)胞質(zhì)中。Smac是一種可以通過(guò)與凋亡抑制蛋白(inhibitors of apoptosis protein,IAP)結(jié)合解除其抑制作用,并協(xié)助凋亡促進(jìn)因子(apoptosis protease activating factor-1,Apaf1)促進(jìn)半胱氨酸蛋白酶(cysteine containing aspirate specific protease,caspase)激活的蛋白質(zhì)[2]。因此,一方面Cytc與胞質(zhì)中Apaf-1和caspase-9相互作用形成凋亡小體,激活caspase-9,活化的caspase-9進(jìn)一步激活caspases,引起凋亡;另一方面,釋放到胞質(zhì)中的Smac通過(guò)解除IAP的凋亡抑制促進(jìn)caspases的級(jí)聯(lián)效應(yīng),導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞凋亡[3-4]。