王 磊,辛文鋒,張文生
(1.北京師范大學(xué)地表過程與資源生態(tài)國家重點實驗室,2.中藥資源保護(hù)與利用北京市重點實驗室,
3.教育部資源藥物工程研究中心,北京 100875;4.云南省三七生物技術(shù)與制藥工程研究中心,云南 昆明 650000)
阿爾采末病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)是一種進(jìn)行性的中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)退行性疾病,臨床表現(xiàn)為認(rèn)知和記憶功能障礙、精神行為異常及生活能力進(jìn)行性減退[1]。腦組織中典型的病理改變包括細(xì)胞外由 β-淀粉樣肽(β-amyloid peptide,Aβ)沉積形成的老年斑(senile plaques,SPs)、細(xì)胞內(nèi)過度磷酸化的tau蛋白聚集形成的神經(jīng)纖維纏結(jié)(neurofibrillary tangles,NFTs)、膽堿能神經(jīng)元凋亡和突觸丟失[2],Aβ 產(chǎn)生相關(guān)酶的抑制劑、抗氧化劑、鈣離子拮抗劑、非甾體類抗炎藥、降膽固醇藥物、雌激素類藥物對AD的治療也有良好效果。梔子是茜草科植物梔子Gardenia jasminoides Ellis的干燥成熟果實,具有瀉火除煩、清熱利濕、涼血解毒等功效。梔子苷(geniposide)屬于環(huán)烯醚萜苷類化合物,經(jīng)β-葡萄糖苷酶水解后,可得其苷元京尼平(genipin)。梔子苷和京尼平具有多種藥理活性,包括抗炎、降血糖、抗腫瘤、抗血栓、保肝利膽等。近年來研究表明梔子苷和京尼平對AD具有良好的治療作用。動物實驗證實梔子苷明顯提高AD模型動物的學(xué)習(xí)記憶能力,改善認(rèn)知功能狀態(tài);細(xì)胞實驗發(fā)現(xiàn)梔子苷和京尼平均具有保護(hù)神經(jīng)細(xì)胞抵抗Aβ毒性損傷作用、抗氧化應(yīng)激、抗內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激、抗炎癥反應(yīng)及促進(jìn)神經(jīng)細(xì)胞生長等作用。隨著研究的逐漸深入,闡釋其作用的分子機(jī)制成為研究的熱點。本文對近年來梔子苷和京尼平治療AD的有關(guān)文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行總結(jié),為進(jìn)一步深入研究提供思路。
老年斑是AD的主要病理標(biāo)志,其核心成分是Aβ。Aβ由存在于細(xì)胞膜上的淀粉樣前體蛋白(APP)經(jīng)β分泌酶和γ分泌酶水解產(chǎn)生的39~43個氨基酸的多肽片段,主要有Aβ1-40和Aβ1-42兩種形式,可自發(fā)聚集成可溶的寡聚態(tài)和不可溶的纖維態(tài),纖維態(tài)的Aβ在神經(jīng)細(xì)胞外沉積構(gòu)成老年斑。Aβ具有神經(jīng)毒性,可引起神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡,且不同形式的Aβ中寡聚態(tài)的毒性最強(qiáng)。梔子苷水溶性較好,能夠順利透過血腦屏障,是發(fā)揮神經(jīng)保護(hù)作用的基礎(chǔ)。在腦室內(nèi)注射寡聚態(tài)Aβ25-35致癡呆小鼠模型中,連續(xù)14 d灌胃給予梔子提取物能夠縮短癡呆小鼠在Morris水迷宮實驗中的尋臺潛伏期,明顯提高癡呆小鼠的空間學(xué)習(xí)記憶能力[3]。另外,梔子苷對Aβ42轉(zhuǎn)基因果蠅的短時記憶也有明顯的改善作用,保護(hù)過量產(chǎn)生的Aβ1-42對神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的損傷[4]。進(jìn)一步實驗證明梔子苷和京尼平明顯改善Aβ對體外培養(yǎng)大鼠海馬神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的毒性損傷,劑量依賴性改善細(xì)胞形態(tài),減少乳酸脫氫酶(lactate dehydrogenase,LDH)的漏出,40 μmol·L-1的京尼平可使LDH漏出率降低50%[5]。有研究表明京尼平能夠抑制caspase級聯(lián)反應(yīng)和線粒體損傷[6],還可通過活化MAPK信號通路發(fā)揮抗凋亡作用,對抗Aβ造成的毒性反應(yīng)。
神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)對氧的消耗大,且抗氧化機(jī)制薄弱,對氧化應(yīng)激十分敏感。在AD患者腦組織神經(jīng)元中存在明顯的氧化應(yīng)激反應(yīng),主要表現(xiàn)為大量自由基的產(chǎn)生(包括超氧陰離子)、羥自由基(HO·)、H2O2和活性氮(ONOO-)),脂質(zhì)、蛋白質(zhì)和核酸的過氧化,抗氧化酶活性降低以及線粒體功能的損傷,并伴隨線粒體介導(dǎo)的細(xì)胞凋亡。該凋亡通路通過引起細(xì)胞色素C的釋放,活化caspase-9,啟動下游的凋亡級聯(lián)反應(yīng)。
梔子苷和京尼平具有多重的抗氧化應(yīng)激和保護(hù)線粒體的作用。主要表現(xiàn)在:①體外實驗發(fā)現(xiàn)梔子苷能夠捕獲自由基。利用DPPH抗氧化活性體外評價體系研究發(fā)現(xiàn),梔子苷對DPPH具有微弱的清除作用[7]。② 京 尼平具有抗脂質(zhì)過氧化的作用,對Fe2+/抗壞血酸引起的大鼠腦組織勻漿脂質(zhì)過氧化有劑量依賴的抑制效果[8]。③ 梔 子苷通過Ras/Raf/MEK-1/Erk信號通路,促進(jìn)谷胱甘肽S-轉(zhuǎn)移酶(glutathione S-transferases,GSTs)M1亞基和 M 2亞基的表達(dá),提高GST的活性[9-10]。GST是體內(nèi)重要的解毒酶系,催化還原型谷胱甘肽與親電子類物質(zhì)結(jié)合,保護(hù)脂質(zhì)、蛋白和核酸等免受氧化損傷[11]。④ 梔子苷激活胰高血糖素樣肽-1受體(glucagon-like peptide-1,GLP-1R),促進(jìn) cAMP 產(chǎn)生,分別活化下游的 MAPK-p90RSK[12]、PI3K/Akt-Nrf2[13-14]和 PKACREB[15]信號通路,提高血紅素氧化酶(hemeoxygenase,HO-1)的表達(dá),抵抗H2O2和ONOO-供體(SIN-1)導(dǎo)致的神經(jīng)細(xì)胞氧化損傷。又有實驗證實梔子苷預(yù)處理對CoCl2引起的氧化應(yīng)激有改善作用。梔子苷既能上調(diào)抗凋亡蛋白Bcl-2的水平,又能下調(diào)凋亡蛋白Bax、轉(zhuǎn)錄因子p53的水平,直接阻斷線粒體介導(dǎo)的細(xì)胞凋亡通路[16]。⑤ 梔子苷和京尼平都能結(jié)合并活化神經(jīng)型一氧化氮合酶(neuronal NO synthase,nNOS),促進(jìn)細(xì)胞中 NO 的產(chǎn)生[17],通過激活 cGMP 依賴的PI3 kinase/Akt通路,減少線粒體細(xì)胞色素C釋放,阻斷凋亡通路中caspase-3和caspase-9活化,抑制6-羥多巴胺和H2O2對神經(jīng)細(xì)胞的氧化損傷[18-19]。
內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)是負(fù)責(zé)細(xì)胞蛋白合成、翻譯后加工修飾及正確折疊的細(xì)胞器,也是儲存Ca2+的主要場所,內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)中含有大量Ca2+依賴的分子伴侶蛋白和相關(guān)酶類。在AD病理狀況下,內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)中Ca2+流入胞質(zhì),Ca2+耗竭影響分子伴侶蛋白的正常功能,加速錯誤蛋白的積累;胞質(zhì)中過量的Ca2+可激活鈣蛋白酶,進(jìn)而活化caspase-12引起細(xì)胞凋亡。內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激還能引起線粒體細(xì)胞色素C的釋放和跨膜電位的消失,誘導(dǎo)氧化應(yīng)激及線粒體損傷。目前尚無梔子苷和京尼平對Aβ所致內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激的直接實驗證據(jù),但是京尼平對衣霉素[20]及A23187[21]引起的Neuro2a細(xì)胞內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激具有明顯的保護(hù)作用。京尼平(20 μmol·L-1)能夠降低內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激分子伴侶Bip/GRP78,CCAAT/增強(qiáng)子結(jié)合蛋白同源蛋白(CHOP)的mRNA及蛋白水平,還能抑制凋亡通路中caspase-12和caspase-3/7的活化,抵抗內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激造成的神經(jīng)細(xì)胞凋亡。
梔子是常用的抗炎中藥。梔子苷和京尼平對多種外周組織炎癥模型(如組織創(chuàng)傷、細(xì)菌感染、類風(fēng)濕性關(guān)節(jié)炎等)具有治療效果[22-24]。兩者不但能夠減少炎癥早期的水腫和滲出,還能抑制炎癥晚期的組織增生和肉芽組織的形成,對炎癥因子和炎癥酶的表達(dá)也有明顯的抑制作用。梔子苷對中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)損傷模型(如局灶性腦缺血模型[25]、腦出血模型[26])的炎癥反應(yīng)也有明顯的改善作用,主要表現(xiàn)在抑制轉(zhuǎn)錄因子 NF-κB 活化,減少炎癥因子(TNF-α、IL-1β)、黏附分子(ICAM-1、VCAM-1)和趨化因子MCP-1等的表達(dá)。
AD患者腦組織中存在著明顯的慢性炎癥反應(yīng),Aβ能夠激活星形膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞和小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞,改變膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞形態(tài),并誘導(dǎo)大量炎癥介質(zhì)(如細(xì)胞因子、黏附分子、趨化因子、急性期蛋白和補(bǔ)體等)的產(chǎn)生;炎癥介質(zhì)直接損傷神經(jīng)細(xì)胞,并促進(jìn)Aβ 的產(chǎn)生,形成惡性的負(fù)反饋環(huán)路[27]。Nam 等[28]證明京尼平能夠明顯抑制寡聚態(tài)Aβ25-35誘導(dǎo)的小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞活化,推測其有可能通過抗炎機(jī)制發(fā)揮治療AD的作用,具體作用機(jī)制尚不清楚。進(jìn)一步研究發(fā)現(xiàn)Aβ結(jié)合小膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞膜上的受體RAGE[29],活化胞內(nèi)信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路,引起 NF-κB入核,促進(jìn) TNF-α、IL-1β、ICAM-1、COX-2、iNOS 和 RAGE 本身的表達(dá),擴(kuò)大炎癥信號[30],因此RAGE是一個值得關(guān)注的靶點。
大腦皮層前額葉以及顳葉下側(cè)的海馬和基底核是人腦學(xué)習(xí)記憶的主要腦區(qū),AD發(fā)病過程中膽堿能神經(jīng)元突觸丟失及細(xì)胞凋亡會導(dǎo)致突觸間信號傳遞效率降低,影響學(xué)習(xí)記憶能力。神經(jīng)生長因子(nerve growth factor,NGF)主要與細(xì)胞膜上的受體酪氨酸蛋白激酶A(TrkA)結(jié)合,啟動TrkARas-ERK胞內(nèi)信號通路[31],也能誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞內(nèi)nNOS的活化,啟動NO-cGMP-PKG通路,促進(jìn)膽堿能細(xì)胞生長和突觸重建[32]。梔子苷和京尼平也有促神經(jīng)細(xì)胞生長作用。PC12h細(xì)胞經(jīng)0.1 mg·L-1和10 mg·L-1的梔子苷和京尼平處理3天,神經(jīng)突起明顯延長。5 mg·L-1組京尼平的作用效果接近于0.1 mg·L-1NGF[33]。利用一氧化氮合酶(nitric oxide synthesis,NOS)抑制劑、一氧化氮捕獲劑、可溶型鳥苷酸環(huán)化酶(soluble guanylate cyclase,SGC)抑制劑、PKG(cGMP-dependent kinase)抑制劑、ERK(extracellular signal-regulated kinase)抑制劑都能抑制京尼平的作用,證明NOS-NO-cGMPPKG-ERK是京尼平促進(jìn)神經(jīng)生長的主要通路[34-35];體外實驗證明PC12h細(xì)胞胞質(zhì)中的nNOS能與梔子苷及京尼平特異結(jié)合,并被劑量依賴地活化,是兩者的共同作用位點[17]。因此梔子苷和京尼平通過激活nNOS,活化NO-cGMP-PKGERK 信號通路[34-35],促進(jìn)神經(jīng)生長。
進(jìn)一步研究表明,梔子苷和京尼平的作用機(jī)制并不完全相同。PC12細(xì)胞與PC12h細(xì)胞具有相同的來源,但正常PC12細(xì)胞中沒有nNOS。經(jīng)梔子苷和京尼平處理后,前者能夠促進(jìn)PC12細(xì)胞生長,但后者則無此作用[36],表明nNOS是梔子苷和京尼平的共同結(jié)合與活化靶點,而梔子苷還具有除nNOS以外的其他作用靶點。
胰高血糖素樣肽-1(glucagon-like peptide-1,GLP-1)及類似物extendin-4能夠活化PC12細(xì)胞膜上的 GLP-1R,促進(jìn)PC12細(xì)胞突觸生長[37]。已經(jīng)證實梔子苷是GLP-1R的新型激動劑,能夠活化GLP-1R及下游的MAPK信號通路,提高生長相關(guān)蛋白-43(growth-associated protein-43,GAP-43)的表達(dá),促進(jìn)PC12細(xì)胞生長[38]。因此在缺乏nNOS的神經(jīng)細(xì)胞中,梔子苷還能通過激活GLP-1R而發(fā)揮作用,反映了梔子苷與京尼平作用的不同之處,推測與二者的結(jié)構(gòu)差異有關(guān)。
綜合上述,梔子苷及京尼平在對抗Aβ毒性作用、抗氧化應(yīng)激、抗內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)應(yīng)激及抗炎等多方面具有良好效果,并能促進(jìn)神經(jīng)生長,修復(fù)受損神經(jīng)元。作為一味傳統(tǒng)的清熱解毒中藥,梔子對AD有較好的抗炎治療效果,其抗炎的靶點和分子機(jī)制有待深入研究。
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