摘 要 讓員工擁有工作自主權(quán)越發(fā)普遍。現(xiàn)有研究主要聚焦于工作自主性積極后效,對(duì)其潛在消極影響鮮有關(guān)注。本文梳理工作自主性對(duì)員工心理和行為的復(fù)雜作用;指出工作自主性與工作結(jié)果變量存在曲線關(guān)系;揭示工作自主性的提高遵循“收益與損失的疊加”和“動(dòng)機(jī)與機(jī)會(huì)的交互”兩條路徑,在工作結(jié)果上表現(xiàn)為“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng);指出未來(lái)研究應(yīng)致力于“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的發(fā)生范圍、內(nèi)在機(jī)理、邊界條件和破解因素。
關(guān)鍵詞 工作自主性 工作要求- 資源模型 維生素模型 “過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)
1 引言
工作中自由管理問(wèn)題越發(fā)重要(V??n?nen et al.,2020)。工業(yè)化背景下,員工在工作目標(biāo)制定、工作過(guò)程設(shè)計(jì)、時(shí)間地點(diǎn)安排等方面缺少自主權(quán)(劉永春, 2016)。有限工作自主性是降低員工積極性的重要原因(Gonzalez-Mulé amp; Cockburn, 2021;Stiglbauer amp; Kovacs, 2018)。隨著通信技術(shù)發(fā)展,員工在工作時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)和安排上擁有更多自主性(Wuamp; Zhou, 2020)。工作自主性不再是必需品,過(guò)高的自主性反而減少員工工作聚焦,花費(fèi)更多精力應(yīng)對(duì)干擾,產(chǎn)生情緒耗竭,出現(xiàn)越軌行為(Brink et al.,2016; Chong et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020)。本文梳理工作自主性對(duì)工作結(jié)果變量的積極和消極影響,重點(diǎn)探討其在工作結(jié)果變量的“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)及內(nèi)在機(jī)理,為工作自主性研究提供新思路,為實(shí)踐中合理運(yùn)用提供參考。
2 工作自主性界定
基于工作特征模型(Hackman amp; Oldham,1976),工作自主性指在安排工作和執(zhí)行工作程序時(shí),工作為員工提供自由、獨(dú)立和自決的程度。它涉及多個(gè)構(gòu)面,如工作進(jìn)度、工作決策和工作方法自主性(Morgeson amp; Humphrey, 2006)。新近研究將彈性工作安排納入其中,將其界定為員工對(duì)何時(shí)、何地、何種安排和方式完成工作任務(wù)的自決程度(Kubiceket al., 2017)。
3 工作自主性的雙刃劍現(xiàn)象
基于工作要求- 資源模型(Bakker amp; Demerouti,2017),工作自主性是積極的工作資源,可以提升工作投入(van Dorssen-Boog et al., 2020)、工作滿意度(Zhao et al., 2020)、工作績(jī)效(Khanamp; Bukhari, 2020)、組織公民行為(Muldoon et al.,2017)、建言行為(Gao amp; Jiang, 2019)、心理健康(vanDorssen-Boog et al., 2020)、家庭- 工作平衡(Hallidayet al., 2018)、員工成長(zhǎng)(Tummers et al., 2018)和創(chuàng)造力(Cai et al., 2018)等;緩沖工作要求的負(fù)面影響,如降低離職率(Debus et al., 2020)。但過(guò)高的工作自主性具有負(fù)面影響,如降低員工幸福感(Balteset al., 2002)和工作效率(Feng amp; Savani, 2020),誘發(fā)越軌行為(Lu et al., 2017)。這些矛盾引起學(xué)者關(guān)注。自主性與組織控制間存在緊張關(guān)系,產(chǎn)生“自主悖論”(劉善仕等, 2021; Mazmanian et al.,2013),即員工擁有的自主權(quán)越多,感受的組織信任越高,投入努力越多,反而導(dǎo)致組織對(duì)員工及其生活控制越多,產(chǎn)生消極影響(Putnam et al.,2014)。管理者需要評(píng)估員工知識(shí)、能力、偏好和性格,以此為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)授予員工不同程度自主性,管理難度加大(Langfred amp; Rockmann, 2016)。工作自主性是利弊并存的“雙刃劍”(見表1)。
4 工作自主性的“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)及其解釋
4.1 基于維生素模型的解釋
工作要求—資源模型難以解釋工作自主性陰暗面。Warr(1994)提出維生素模型,將工作特征對(duì)心理健康的效應(yīng)類比維他命對(duì)生理健康的效應(yīng),為解釋工作自主性的兩面性提供新視角。工作自主性具有維A 和維D 特性,當(dāng)超過(guò)某個(gè)閾限,其對(duì)員工心理健康的積極效應(yīng)停止,甚至有害。
維生素模型是現(xiàn)象總結(jié)而非理論驅(qū)動(dòng)(王海俠等, 2019),未能揭示工作自主性對(duì)心理健康產(chǎn)生反轉(zhuǎn)的本質(zhì),其在心理健康上的兩面性解釋,能否遷移到其它工作結(jié)果變量,有待商榷。
4.2 工作自主性的“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)
以往管理學(xué)研究過(guò)度簡(jiǎn)化概念間關(guān)系,認(rèn)為積極前因的收益能“多多益善”(邢璐等, 2018)。Pierce 和Aguinis(2013)指出,研究者長(zhǎng)期關(guān)注積極前因與理想結(jié)果間的單調(diào)線性關(guān)系,使研究結(jié)論片面性和簡(jiǎn)單化。有學(xué)者質(zhì)疑,“積極”前因的作用并非總是積極,存在“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)(邢璐等,2018),即“積極”前因的積極作用存在臨界點(diǎn)。在臨界點(diǎn)處,前因變量與理想結(jié)果變量的正向關(guān)系中止;在超過(guò)臨界點(diǎn)后產(chǎn)生非期望結(jié)果,從而整體呈倒U型非線性關(guān)系(Grant amp; Schwartz, 2011)?!斑^(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)能解釋并整合矛盾的研究結(jié)論,具有方法論意義(Pierce amp; Aguinis, 2013)。
工作自主性存在“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng),但這僅是描述現(xiàn)象,其發(fā)生機(jī)制更值得關(guān)注。原因在于自變量的作用過(guò)程中包含相互獨(dú)立或相互聯(lián)系的對(duì)抗性關(guān)系,倒U 型關(guān)系本質(zhì)為兩種對(duì)抗性關(guān)系的調(diào)諧(邢璐等, 2018; Pierce amp; Aguinis, 2013),具體包括“收益與損失的疊加”和“動(dòng)機(jī)與機(jī)會(huì)的交互”兩類機(jī)制。
4.2.1 “收益與損失的疊加”機(jī)制
“收益與損失的疊加”機(jī)制包含收益與損失兩條路徑。收益指因變量隨自變量增加而增加;損失指因變量隨自變量增加而減少,兩者通過(guò)“收益-損失”的代數(shù)整合得到凈收益,體現(xiàn)在倒U 型關(guān)系中(邢璐等, 2018)。
工作自主性提高工作滿意度(Kim et al., 2019;Zhao et al., 2020),心理健康和主觀幸福感(Gardner,2020; van Dorssen-Boog et al., 2020; Yang amp; Zhao,2018)。少數(shù)研究認(rèn)為過(guò)度的工作自主性降低員工幸福感(Baltes et al., 2002; Taris, 2006; Warr,2013)。工作自主性與員工幸福感呈倒U 型關(guān)系。當(dāng)工作自主性從低到中增加時(shí),幸福感增加;工作自主性較高時(shí),幸福感降低(Baltes et al., 2002;Warr, 1994)。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),工作自主性提高工作績(jī)效(Barrick amp; Mount, 1993; Johari et al., 2018; Li etal., 2018; Sekiguchi et al., 2017)和組織績(jī)效(Bakkeramp; Demerouti, 2007; Halbesleben, 2011; Khan amp;Bukhari, 2020)。少量研究發(fā)現(xiàn),工作自主性較高的員工工作時(shí)間更長(zhǎng),工作效率更低(Baltes etal., 1999; Feng amp; Savani, 2020; Kelliher amp; Anderson,2010)。
“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的“收益與損失的疊加”機(jī)制可解釋工作自主性對(duì)工作幸福感和工作績(jī)效的矛盾結(jié)果(Zhou, 2020)。如圖1(1)實(shí)線,對(duì)于收益路徑,工作自主性補(bǔ)充工作資源,緩沖工作要求,提升員工內(nèi)部動(dòng)機(jī)和工作投入,進(jìn)而提高工作績(jī)效和工作幸福感。如圖1(1)虛線,對(duì)于損失路徑,根據(jù)自我控制資源有限理論(Baumeister etal., 1998),進(jìn)行工作安排、計(jì)劃和決策會(huì)耗費(fèi)自我控制資源(Chong et al., 2020; Sj?stad amp; Baumeister,2018)。當(dāng)工作自主性過(guò)度時(shí),工作安排和決策消耗大量自我控制資源,導(dǎo)致處理工作任務(wù)時(shí)資源不足,效率降低,壓力增大,幸福感下降,出現(xiàn)邊際損失增加。如圖1(2),“收益- 損失”通過(guò)代數(shù)整合,呈倒U 型曲線。
4.2.2 “動(dòng)機(jī)與機(jī)會(huì)的交互”機(jī)制
“動(dòng)機(jī)與機(jī)會(huì)的交互”機(jī)制包含動(dòng)機(jī)與機(jī)會(huì)兩類因素,動(dòng)機(jī)反映個(gè)體表現(xiàn)特定行為的主觀意愿;機(jī)會(huì)反映相應(yīng)的環(huán)境因素,通過(guò)乘法關(guān)系體現(xiàn)在總效應(yīng)中。結(jié)果變量通常是某種行為,它的提升需要?jiǎng)訖C(jī)和機(jī)會(huì)因素。自變量的增加會(huì)導(dǎo)致主觀意愿和機(jī)會(huì)的不一致變化,呈現(xiàn)此消彼長(zhǎng)態(tài)勢(shì)(邢璐等,2018)。
汪亞明等(2015)發(fā)現(xiàn),工作自主性較低時(shí),員工易出現(xiàn)越軌行為。也有研究表明,過(guò)高的工作自主性會(huì)使員工感到不受規(guī)則約束,促進(jìn)越軌行為發(fā)生(Brink et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2017)。張麗君(2019)發(fā)現(xiàn),在控制動(dòng)機(jī)低時(shí),工作自主性對(duì)越軌行為有負(fù)向影響,在中、高控制動(dòng)機(jī)時(shí),工作自主性對(duì)越軌行為有正向影響。
“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的“動(dòng)機(jī)與機(jī)會(huì)的交互”機(jī)制可解釋工作自主性對(duì)越軌行為的矛盾結(jié)果(Zhou,2020)。如圖2(1),工作自主性的增加為員工自主決策提供空間,但減少對(duì)員工的外部監(jiān)控,越軌行為機(jī)會(huì)增加(Vardi amp; Weitz, 2004)。根據(jù)自我決定理論(Deci et al., 2017),當(dāng)個(gè)體在工作中獲得自主權(quán)時(shí),不受規(guī)則約束感增加。工作自主性少量增加,未達(dá)到缺乏外部監(jiān)控水平時(shí),外部自由空間的擴(kuò)大增加個(gè)體遵守規(guī)則的動(dòng)機(jī)(齊昕等, 2017),越軌行為不易發(fā)生。工作自主性過(guò)度增加,工作環(huán)境過(guò)度寬松,員工遵守規(guī)范的動(dòng)機(jī)下降,自利性動(dòng)機(jī)增加(如圖2(2))。如圖2(3),動(dòng)機(jī)和機(jī)會(huì)通過(guò)乘法關(guān)系,呈J 型曲線。
5 問(wèn)題與展望
過(guò)多的工作自主性導(dǎo)致事與愿違的結(jié)果,但工作自主性陰暗面研究較零散,大多停留在理論構(gòu)想層面(王海俠等, 2019)。厘清工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的發(fā)生范圍、內(nèi)在機(jī)理及影響因素,有助于學(xué)者理解工作自主性特點(diǎn),科學(xué)進(jìn)行工作設(shè)計(jì),達(dá)到工作自主性最優(yōu)管理效果。
5.1 明確工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的發(fā)生范圍
工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)實(shí)證研究十分缺乏,僅少量研究支持工作自主性降低工作幸福感(Balteset al., 2002; Taris, 2006; Warr, 2013),誘發(fā)越軌行為(Brink et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2017)。未來(lái)需要檢驗(yàn)工作自主性在其它結(jié)果變量上的“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng),思考其在個(gè)體層面和組織層面的消極影響。例如,工作地點(diǎn)的自主性改變了固定辦公環(huán)境,減少同事交往(Wang et al., 2020),降低個(gè)體的社會(huì)支持感。我們僅以工作績(jī)效、工作幸福感和越軌行為為例,推導(dǎo)工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的具體發(fā)生機(jī)理,其它結(jié)果變量(如創(chuàng)新行為),是否存在“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng),作用機(jī)理是什么?需要未來(lái)在理論和實(shí)證層面推導(dǎo)和檢驗(yàn)。
5.2 完善工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的研究設(shè)計(jì)
有研究支持工作自主性與工作滿意度、幸福感和疲勞呈曲線關(guān)系(Baltes et al., 2002; Kubicek et al.,2014; Sawang et al., 2020),但也有研究不支持(DeJonge amp; Schaufeli, 1998; Jeurissen amp; Nyklí?ek, 2001;Rydsted et al., 2006),其原因如下。
(1)抽樣使取值范圍受限。“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)對(duì)抽樣要求高,應(yīng)保證自變量取值域全面,且變異夠大,才能識(shí)別曲線關(guān)系(邢璐等, 2018)。不同職業(yè)類型和崗位在不同類型自主性程度上存在差異,為保證自主性的取值全面和變異夠大,研究取樣應(yīng)兼顧職業(yè)類型和崗位多元化。
(2)因Likert 量表統(tǒng)計(jì)效力低,曲線效應(yīng)比線性效應(yīng)更難檢測(cè)(Vergauwe et al., 2017)。Vergauwe等(2017)開發(fā)TLTM 量表,改用- 4(太少)、0(合適)和4(太多)計(jì)分方法檢驗(yàn)曲線關(guān)系。與Likert量表相比,TLTM 量表對(duì)曲線關(guān)系更敏感,且不需要大樣本或復(fù)雜統(tǒng)計(jì)操作。
(3)現(xiàn)有研究多為橫截面取樣,無(wú)法做因果推斷。未來(lái)可用縱向設(shè)計(jì),納入時(shí)間因素(邢璐等,2018),在不同時(shí)間點(diǎn)綜合考察工作自主性對(duì)工作結(jié)果變量的非線性影響。綜合問(wèn)卷法、實(shí)驗(yàn)法和日記式研究等多種研究方法,增加研究結(jié)論嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)性。
5.3 理清工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的內(nèi)在機(jī)制
現(xiàn)有研究缺乏統(tǒng)一理論框架對(duì)工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)及其復(fù)雜機(jī)制驗(yàn)證?!笆找媾c損失的疊加”和“動(dòng)機(jī)與機(jī)會(huì)的交互”兩條路徑為理解“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)提供邏輯框架,更好整合矛盾的研究結(jié)論。針對(duì)不同工作結(jié)果變量,工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的解釋機(jī)理不同,未來(lái)需要識(shí)別關(guān)鍵概念,將抽象的潛在機(jī)制操作化為具體的變量間關(guān)系,通過(guò)實(shí)證檢驗(yàn)為工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的解釋機(jī)制提供支持。
5.4 識(shí)別工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的臨界位置
結(jié)合具體情境,識(shí)別工作自主性在不同崗位、工作模式和情境下的逆轉(zhuǎn)閾限,具有重要意義?,F(xiàn)有研究對(duì)“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的發(fā)生機(jī)制尚不清楚,涉及逆轉(zhuǎn)閾限的論述更是缺乏。鄧春平等(2018)發(fā)現(xiàn)具有邊界跨越特征的IT 員工,因工作內(nèi)容多樣,面臨角色沖突和角色模糊,如果再給予工作自主性,會(huì)使他們無(wú)所適從,降低知識(shí)獲取和邊界跨越績(jī)效??梢姡谟鑶T工自主性的程度因工作類型而異。
5.5 確定工作自主性“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的調(diào)節(jié)因素
現(xiàn)有研究對(duì)工作自主性與工作結(jié)果變量曲線關(guān)系受何種因素調(diào)節(jié)、調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng)具體作用方向和強(qiáng)度尚不清楚。員工對(duì)自主性的反應(yīng)積極還是消極,取決于其自主需要(Deci et al., 2017)。工作時(shí)間和工作場(chǎng)所的自主性更利于自主需求高的員工(vanYperen et al., 2016)。Chung-Yan (2010)發(fā)現(xiàn),工作自主性和工作滿意感曲線關(guān)系只存在于高復(fù)雜性工作,不存在于低度和中度復(fù)雜性工作。工作復(fù)雜性對(duì)曲線關(guān)系起調(diào)節(jié)作用。未來(lái)可從“過(guò)猶不及”效應(yīng)的“收益與損失的疊加”和“動(dòng)機(jī)與機(jī)會(huì)的交互”兩種機(jī)制出發(fā),分別探尋相應(yīng)調(diào)節(jié)因素并加以檢驗(yàn),有助于學(xué)者對(duì)調(diào)節(jié)效應(yīng)的發(fā)生機(jī)制有更為本質(zhì)的理解。
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