黎耀奇 江秋敏
[摘? ? 要]旅游學(xué)科是一個(gè)建立在時(shí)空視角下的學(xué)科,旅游行為是游客閑暇時(shí)間在非慣常環(huán)境下的休憩和游玩行為。然而,目前關(guān)于旅游時(shí)間的學(xué)術(shù)研究主要關(guān)注客觀時(shí)間,旅游學(xué)術(shù)界對(duì)主觀心理時(shí)間的研究較為缺乏。文章基于時(shí)間主客觀性及時(shí)間屬性(時(shí)距、時(shí)序、時(shí)點(diǎn))構(gòu)建了旅游心理時(shí)間研究框架,并在系統(tǒng)文獻(xiàn)評(píng)述的基礎(chǔ)上,提出4個(gè)基于心理時(shí)間框架下的旅游研究方向:旅游者時(shí)序知覺與時(shí)點(diǎn)知覺對(duì)旅游決策及旅游體驗(yàn)的影響、旅游心理時(shí)間與時(shí)間記憶的相互關(guān)系、跨文化差異對(duì)時(shí)間框架下旅游心理及旅游決策的影響、旅游者時(shí)間稀缺感與時(shí)間壓力的影響。文章提出的旅游心理時(shí)間研究框架勾畫了旅游時(shí)間研究的邏輯框架,為后續(xù)旅游心理時(shí)間研究奠定了理論基礎(chǔ)。
[關(guān)鍵詞]主觀心理時(shí)間;時(shí)間觀;時(shí)間知覺;時(shí)間框架;旅游時(shí)間
[中圖分類號(hào)]F59
[文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼]A
[文章編號(hào)]1002-5006(2023)06-0053-10
DOI: 10.19765/j.cnki.1002-5006.2023.00.007
引言
時(shí)間作為一種客觀存在與主觀認(rèn)知共存的概念,既是一種獨(dú)立于人類的物理存在,即“時(shí)鐘時(shí)間”(clock time)[1],亦是人類心理過程存在的方式,即人內(nèi)心所感知到的心理時(shí)間[2]。在旅游情境下,客觀時(shí)間是旅游限制性條件之一,而旅游者心理時(shí)間作為旅游行為和決策的重要影響因素,決定著旅游者的行為與態(tài)度[3]。目前,關(guān)于時(shí)間的研究主要集中在客觀存在的物理時(shí)間方面,缺乏針對(duì)旅游者主觀心理時(shí)間的研究[4-5]。然而,對(duì)旅游者而言,旅游活動(dòng)的核心目的是塑造一種正面、積極的心理體驗(yàn)[6]。因此,旅游研究需要從主體性去研究旅游者主觀感受對(duì)旅游體驗(yàn)的影響。已有研究表明,相較于客觀時(shí)間,主觀心理時(shí)間對(duì)消費(fèi)者的認(rèn)知、態(tài)度和行為的預(yù)測更準(zhǔn)確[7]。比如結(jié)合社會(huì)情緒選擇理論所提及的中老年人的情感動(dòng)機(jī)和積極情緒的偏好[8],胡卉宇等發(fā)現(xiàn)了老年人未來時(shí)間洞察力對(duì)其旅游態(tài)度的影響[9];Li等指出游客在時(shí)間壓力下更容易產(chǎn)生沖動(dòng)購買行為[10]。因此,從旅游者主觀心理時(shí)間視角研究旅游現(xiàn)象具有重要意義。
為了回應(yīng)旅游研究在主觀心理時(shí)間方面的不足,本文結(jié)合時(shí)間概念及旅游時(shí)間研究進(jìn)展,構(gòu)建了旅游心理時(shí)間研究框架。具體而言,本文首先對(duì)時(shí)間框架進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)介紹,闡明客觀時(shí)間、時(shí)間知覺和時(shí)間觀的概念及其相互關(guān)系,建立旅游心理時(shí)間研究框架;其次,系統(tǒng)梳理和歸納旅游心理時(shí)間研究進(jìn)展;最后,基于旅游心理時(shí)間研究框架和旅游心理時(shí)間研究進(jìn)展,提出旅游心理時(shí)間的未來研究方向。
1 時(shí)間框架
1.1 客觀時(shí)間
自古希臘以來,哲學(xué)界和自然科學(xué)界不斷對(duì)時(shí)間問題展開探索,至今已有兩千年的歷史[11]。古希臘關(guān)于時(shí)間的傳統(tǒng)認(rèn)知指出,時(shí)間是一種自然周期的往復(fù)和宗教意義上的輪回[12]。而以奧古斯丁為代表的基督教時(shí)間觀念則認(rèn)為,時(shí)間與事件的發(fā)展遵循線段的形式,過去和未來都具有一致的方向[13]。在近現(xiàn)代,牛頓提出了絕對(duì)時(shí)空觀的概念[14],從時(shí)間的獨(dú)立性角度強(qiáng)調(diào)時(shí)間與任何外界事物無關(guān)。馬克思的社會(huì)時(shí)空觀則認(rèn)為[15],時(shí)間不是獨(dú)立存在的,我們應(yīng)當(dāng)從與人類生產(chǎn)物質(zhì)活動(dòng)相結(jié)合的角度理解和認(rèn)知時(shí)間問題。在社會(huì)科學(xué)領(lǐng)域,時(shí)間對(duì)人類生產(chǎn)與生活的重要意義已經(jīng)成為了共識(shí)[16],時(shí)間被認(rèn)為是理解人類行為的最好維度之一[17]。
為了更好地對(duì)抽象的時(shí)間問題展開分析,心理學(xué)家Block提出了以時(shí)間基本信息中不可分割的時(shí)距、時(shí)序和時(shí)點(diǎn)為基礎(chǔ)的三屬性時(shí)間劃分[18]。其中,時(shí)距表示每一個(gè)事件持續(xù)的時(shí)間段,時(shí)序代表事件或變化所發(fā)生的先后順序,時(shí)點(diǎn)則代表事件所發(fā)生的具體時(shí)刻或者時(shí)間標(biāo)志。心理學(xué)者后續(xù)研究均表明,時(shí)距、時(shí)序和時(shí)點(diǎn)三屬性有效地概括了時(shí)間的基本信息[19],是研究者對(duì)時(shí)間問題展開分析的有效工具。因此,本文將以此為旅游中時(shí)間的基礎(chǔ)元素展開分析。
1.2 時(shí)間知覺
從時(shí)間的知覺主體角度出發(fā),時(shí)間不僅是一種客觀存在,也是個(gè)體對(duì)客觀時(shí)間理解和解釋的主觀認(rèn)知,即個(gè)體的時(shí)間知覺(time perception)。心理學(xué)家James在《心理學(xué)原理》中首次提出了時(shí)間知覺這一術(shù)語,認(rèn)為時(shí)間知覺只是一種持續(xù)2~3秒的短暫狀態(tài)[20]。鳳四海和黃希庭提出了不同的觀點(diǎn),他們認(rèn)為時(shí)間知覺都不可避免地涉及人類的記憶和意識(shí),時(shí)間知覺不局限于短暫狀態(tài),亦可以是長時(shí)間的認(rèn)知和體驗(yàn)[21]。因此,時(shí)間知覺既會(huì)影響人們的瞬時(shí)決策,亦會(huì)影響人們的長期記憶與決策[22]。本文結(jié)合旅游活動(dòng)的延續(xù)性,認(rèn)為時(shí)間知覺是個(gè)體不借助外部時(shí)間參照物,自身對(duì)時(shí)間消逝的快慢、時(shí)距長短、順序性和時(shí)點(diǎn)性等時(shí)間基本要素的一種知覺和判斷[23]。
時(shí)間知覺是主體對(duì)客觀時(shí)間的知覺和判斷,因此存在著時(shí)點(diǎn)知覺、時(shí)序知覺與時(shí)距知覺。時(shí)點(diǎn)知覺(temporal locus perception)表示時(shí)間具體發(fā)生的時(shí)間點(diǎn)的感知。目前,關(guān)于時(shí)點(diǎn)知覺研究主要圍繞時(shí)間標(biāo)志(temporal landmarks)展開。時(shí)間標(biāo)志指人們?nèi)粘I钪兄匾揖哂写硇缘臅r(shí)間節(jié)點(diǎn),包括個(gè)體重要時(shí)點(diǎn)、公共重要時(shí)點(diǎn)和日歷時(shí)點(diǎn)等[24]。已有研究表明,個(gè)體的時(shí)點(diǎn)知覺對(duì)其目標(biāo)動(dòng)機(jī)及行為決策會(huì)產(chǎn)生顯著的影響[25-26]。時(shí)序知覺(temporal succession perception)指關(guān)于時(shí)間發(fā)生的順序性的感知,包括人們對(duì)事件發(fā)生的同時(shí)性、非同時(shí)性和序列性的經(jīng)驗(yàn)判斷[27]。對(duì)時(shí)序知覺的研究是認(rèn)知科學(xué)中跨期心理和行為決策的基礎(chǔ),衍生出諸多理論[28]。比如,基于時(shí)序知覺的記憶強(qiáng)度問題,Killeen 和Grondin提出了強(qiáng)度理論,指出人們對(duì)某一事件的記憶痕跡越清晰越強(qiáng)烈,個(gè)體對(duì)其發(fā)生的事件判斷就越近[29];Kim和Zauberman的傳送帶理論則發(fā)現(xiàn)了人類記憶中所組織的事件表征本質(zhì)上是通過事件發(fā)生的先后順序來保存的[30]。時(shí)距知覺(temporal duration perception)表示人們對(duì)時(shí)間發(fā)生的持續(xù)性的感知。關(guān)于時(shí)距知覺的研究成果,主要圍繞其影響因素展開。已有研究表明,時(shí)間因素和非時(shí)間因素都會(huì)對(duì)時(shí)距知覺產(chǎn)生重要影響[31]。針對(duì)時(shí)距方面的研究,主要集中在時(shí)距的長短、快慢屬性方面,對(duì)其他時(shí)距元素(如信息密度)探討尚淺[32-37]。
當(dāng)前,為了更好地理解人類時(shí)間行為的特征及過程,學(xué)者們從不同的角度提出了不同的心理時(shí)間理論模型。Treisman基于腦科學(xué)研究提出內(nèi)部時(shí)鐘模型(internal clock model),該模型認(rèn)為在人的大腦結(jié)構(gòu)中存在一個(gè)類似時(shí)鐘的模型,這個(gè)時(shí)鐘由大腦中的中樞神經(jīng)驅(qū)動(dòng)并讓人體對(duì)時(shí)距產(chǎn)生認(rèn)知[38]。如果生物體內(nèi)與感知時(shí)間相對(duì)應(yīng)的腦部區(qū)域受到損害,則會(huì)影響生物個(gè)體對(duì)時(shí)間知覺的能力。Fraisse提出的變化分割模型(change segmentation model)進(jìn)一步闡明了生物個(gè)體感知時(shí)間的具體方式[39]。他認(rèn)為時(shí)間知覺就是主觀知覺到的時(shí)間變化,人們會(huì)將記憶分割變化為若干片段,并根據(jù)片段數(shù)量判斷時(shí)距長短。早期的心理時(shí)間模型更多關(guān)注生物機(jī)體的內(nèi)在變量影響,忽視了外在變量。在此基礎(chǔ)上,加工整合模型開始強(qiáng)調(diào)外部刺激因素對(duì)主觀知覺的影響,該模型認(rèn)為個(gè)體會(huì)根據(jù)知覺任務(wù)或刺激的不同,調(diào)整注意力資源的分配,從而針對(duì)性地估計(jì)時(shí)距長短[21]。注意力閘門模型優(yōu)化了加工整合模型的不足,加入了注意開關(guān)、記憶等多重認(rèn)知成分,進(jìn)一步明確了注意力資源的影響[21]。黃希庭通過整合先前的理論模型,提出了分段綜合模型(range-synthetic model)。該模型認(rèn)為個(gè)體對(duì)時(shí)間的知覺不僅取決于時(shí)間特征因素,還取決于個(gè)體的認(rèn)知水平和人格特質(zhì)[21]。注意力閘門模型和分段綜合模型都屬于綜合類模型,這兩種模型承認(rèn)時(shí)間知覺內(nèi)部和外部雙重因素,既關(guān)注生物個(gè)體差異作用,也關(guān)注外部環(huán)境的影響。總的來說,已有的理論模型主要圍繞時(shí)距知覺所展開,涉及時(shí)點(diǎn)知覺、時(shí)序知覺的研究較少,缺乏相關(guān)模型。此外,分段綜合模型是首個(gè)將時(shí)點(diǎn)、時(shí)序和時(shí)距綜合研究的模型[40],有助于學(xué)者更全面系統(tǒng)地理解和構(gòu)建心理時(shí)間研究框架。
1.3 時(shí)間觀
時(shí)間觀,也被稱為時(shí)間風(fēng)格(timestyle)、時(shí)間洞察力(time horizon perspective)、時(shí)間導(dǎo)向(temporal orientation),是指個(gè)體感知和思考時(shí)間的慣常方式[5]。人們?cè)趯?duì)不同時(shí)間物理屬性的認(rèn)知和體驗(yàn)過程中,慢慢形成時(shí)間觀。時(shí)間觀作為人們對(duì)時(shí)間的認(rèn)知、體驗(yàn)情感和行動(dòng)傾向的一種人格特質(zhì)[41],在時(shí)間知覺的形成中起到了關(guān)鍵作用。從時(shí)間的時(shí)序性出發(fā),可以分為線性時(shí)間觀與循環(huán)時(shí)間觀,或者分為過去時(shí)間觀、現(xiàn)在時(shí)間觀和未來時(shí)間觀?;跁r(shí)間的時(shí)距屬性,則可以劃分為有限時(shí)間觀與開放時(shí)間觀。
針對(duì)時(shí)序?qū)傩?,學(xué)者們按照時(shí)間循環(huán)性及時(shí)間進(jìn)程將時(shí)間觀劃分為不同類型。針對(duì)個(gè)體對(duì)時(shí)間循環(huán)性的認(rèn)知,時(shí)間觀可以分為線性時(shí)間觀(rectilinear time perspective)與循環(huán)時(shí)間觀(circular time perspective)[42-43]。線性時(shí)間觀認(rèn)為,人生整個(gè)時(shí)間階段類似一條直線,并且呈現(xiàn)單向運(yùn)動(dòng)的狀態(tài)[44];循環(huán)時(shí)間觀將人生時(shí)間階段理解為一個(gè)圓圈,呈現(xiàn)周而復(fù)始的環(huán)形運(yùn)動(dòng)[45]。擁有線性時(shí)間觀的個(gè)體基于不斷前進(jìn)的觀念,認(rèn)為過去發(fā)生的事物不可重復(fù),循環(huán)時(shí)間觀的人們則將時(shí)間與重復(fù)的事件聯(lián)系起來,認(rèn)為過去發(fā)生的事物會(huì)重復(fù)發(fā)生。比如徐嵐等分析了線性時(shí)間觀和循環(huán)時(shí)間觀對(duì)消費(fèi)者跨期決策的影響[46],發(fā)現(xiàn)線性時(shí)間觀的參與者會(huì)比循環(huán)時(shí)間觀的參與者在判斷相同時(shí)間間隔時(shí),感知到的時(shí)間間隔更長,進(jìn)而影響他們?cè)诳缙谶x擇上的行為,即持有線性時(shí)間觀的人會(huì)比持循環(huán)時(shí)間觀的人更傾向選擇近期選項(xiàng)[46]。
針對(duì)個(gè)體對(duì)過去、現(xiàn)在或未來的思考傾向,時(shí)序時(shí)間觀還可以劃分為過去時(shí)間觀、現(xiàn)在時(shí)間觀和未來時(shí)間觀。心理學(xué)家津巴多和博伊德在《時(shí)間的悖論》一書中按照過去、現(xiàn)在和未來劃分了個(gè)體所具有的6種時(shí)間觀[47]:關(guān)于過去的消極時(shí)間觀、關(guān)于過去的積極時(shí)間觀、關(guān)注當(dāng)下的宿命主義時(shí)間觀、關(guān)注當(dāng)下的享樂主義時(shí)間觀、關(guān)注未來的時(shí)間觀和超未來的時(shí)間觀。與此同時(shí),黃希庭從個(gè)體對(duì)時(shí)間的認(rèn)知、情感、行為傾向出發(fā),圍繞過去、現(xiàn)在和未來的時(shí)間導(dǎo)向?qū)r(shí)間洞察力分為過去時(shí)間洞察力、現(xiàn)在時(shí)間洞察力、未來時(shí)間洞察力[41]。已有研究表明,過去、現(xiàn)在和未來3種時(shí)間觀對(duì)消費(fèi)者的態(tài)度和行為存在潛移默化的影響[48-49]。在旅游情境下,Song等在探討影響旅游者前往生態(tài)旅游目的地意愿的決定性因素中發(fā)現(xiàn),未來導(dǎo)向的時(shí)間觀和旅游目的地形象對(duì)生態(tài)旅游目的地的出游意向都有正向影響[50]。
基于時(shí)間的時(shí)距屬性,Carstensen等將個(gè)體對(duì)時(shí)間界限的感知概括為兩類時(shí)間觀:開放時(shí)間觀(open-ended time perspective)和有限時(shí)間觀(limited time perspective)[7]。擁有開放性時(shí)間觀的個(gè)體認(rèn)為自己未來剩余時(shí)間充裕,而有限時(shí)間觀的個(gè)體則認(rèn)為自己未來剩余時(shí)間短暫而有限。已有研究表明,當(dāng)人們持有限時(shí)間觀時(shí),更趨向關(guān)注當(dāng)下的情緒,而當(dāng)人們持有開放時(shí)間觀時(shí),會(huì)更多關(guān)注未來的計(jì)劃[51];持有有限時(shí)間觀的個(gè)體更傾向于避免負(fù)面情緒,而不是主動(dòng)獲取積極情緒[52]。
目前,尚未有學(xué)者針對(duì)時(shí)點(diǎn)屬性提出時(shí)間觀類型。已有研究表明,重要時(shí)點(diǎn)在個(gè)體組織記憶中發(fā)揮著重要作用。時(shí)點(diǎn)不僅可以影響我們過往記憶的鞏固和重建,還有可能會(huì)影響新記憶的輸入[53],因此很有必要針對(duì)時(shí)點(diǎn)時(shí)間觀展開研究。人們對(duì)待不同時(shí)點(diǎn)的態(tài)度是否會(huì)產(chǎn)生不同的時(shí)間觀,仍有待未來進(jìn)一步探索。
2 時(shí)間框架下的旅游研究現(xiàn)狀
本文以時(shí)間的主客觀性(客觀時(shí)間、心理時(shí)間)和時(shí)間屬性(時(shí)點(diǎn)、時(shí)序、時(shí)距)為基本框架,對(duì)旅游時(shí)間研究進(jìn)行了梳理和歸納(圖1)。
2.1 基于時(shí)距的研究
針對(duì)旅游中的時(shí)距研究,旅游學(xué)者主要圍繞旅游行程中時(shí)距長短問題展開了討論。比如Becken和Wilson發(fā)現(xiàn)自駕游中駕駛時(shí)間長度增加游客的挫敗感和憤怒感[54],Yang等指出縮短旅途中的時(shí)間長度是旅游者在旅程設(shè)計(jì)中最??紤]的因素[55]。對(duì)旅游者來說,旅途安排不僅需要考慮到達(dá)目的地的時(shí)間,還需要安排好旅游體驗(yàn)和游覽的時(shí)間[56],即涉及旅游時(shí)距中的快慢和虛實(shí)問題。Dickinson和Peeters圍繞旅途行程時(shí)間提出慢旅游和任務(wù)式旅游兩種方式,前者是一種更關(guān)注自我放松時(shí)間的自由隨性式旅游,后者是更關(guān)注游覽內(nèi)容的數(shù)量多少的固定式旅游[1]。當(dāng)前,關(guān)于旅途行程緊密程度與旅游體驗(yàn)的關(guān)系尚未形成共識(shí)。Molz認(rèn)為慢速旅游是一種對(duì)環(huán)境更友好、更低消耗的旅游方式,這種方式不僅能夠減少溫室氣體的排放,同時(shí)還能夠讓旅行者更加專注旅途體驗(yàn)和旅行模式[57]。此外,亦有學(xué)者從交通工具和信息技術(shù)的變革方面對(duì)旅途時(shí)距及旅游體驗(yàn)的影響展開分析。交通效率的提升和信息技術(shù)的進(jìn)步對(duì)時(shí)空進(jìn)行了有效壓縮,使得人們從時(shí)間限制中解放出來[1],可以加快旅游進(jìn)程和旅途效率。然而,這種改變亦給旅游體驗(yàn)帶來負(fù)面的影響。比如張驍鳴等認(rèn)為,智能手機(jī)和平板電腦的普及使得旅游者閑暇時(shí)間和工作時(shí)間的界限開始消解[58],手機(jī)通信的即時(shí)性使得旅游者無法完全避免旅游休閑中來自工作、家庭等其他方面的干擾,無法全身心投入旅行狀態(tài),這會(huì)為旅游者的旅途體驗(yàn)帶來負(fù)面感受。
時(shí)距知覺作為對(duì)旅游前、旅游中和旅游后三階段旅游體驗(yàn)均產(chǎn)生重要影響的因素,是當(dāng)前旅游心理研究的重點(diǎn)所在[59-64]。Li等指出時(shí)距知覺是旅游者在旅游過程行為決策中決定性要素,他們基于社會(huì)情緒選擇理論發(fā)現(xiàn)了游客在旅途開始時(shí)偏好以問題為中心的決策方式,而在旅途結(jié)束時(shí)偏好以情感為中心的決策[61]。針對(duì)旅游消費(fèi)問題,張夢(mèng)等從解釋水平理論的視角分析了旅游者時(shí)間知覺與購買決策的關(guān)系,研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在旅游消費(fèi)過程中,處于較遠(yuǎn)時(shí)距知覺狀態(tài)的旅游者受到認(rèn)同性評(píng)論的影響更顯著,而較近時(shí)距知覺狀態(tài)下的旅游者受工具性評(píng)論的影響更強(qiáng)[62]。此外,還有學(xué)者分析了時(shí)距知覺對(duì)老年人晚年幸福感的影響[63]以及夜間旅游中時(shí)距知覺的作用[64]。
近年來,旅游學(xué)者開始關(guān)注旅游活動(dòng)及旅游動(dòng)機(jī)對(duì)旅游者時(shí)距知覺的影響問題[65]。比如,由于活動(dòng)的內(nèi)在參與動(dòng)力會(huì)改變個(gè)體的時(shí)間意識(shí)[66],旅游者感知到的排隊(duì)等待時(shí)間會(huì)比實(shí)際時(shí)間更長,即旅游者會(huì)夸大其等待過程的時(shí)距知覺[67]。從心理理論出發(fā),讓旅游者在等待過程中忙碌起來,是降低其感知的等待時(shí)距知覺的有效方式[68]。比如,讓旅游者在等待過程中進(jìn)入虛擬的游戲狀態(tài),從而讓其進(jìn)入游戲的心流體驗(yàn)狀態(tài),避免旅游者將個(gè)人的注意力集中在等待時(shí)間上,能有效提升旅游者的滿意度[69]??偟膩碚f,由于旅游活動(dòng)的體驗(yàn)?zāi)J匠尸F(xiàn)多樣化以及旅游時(shí)距知覺影響的復(fù)雜性,后續(xù)可以圍繞旅游者時(shí)距知覺的形成及影響展開系統(tǒng)研究。
2.2 基于時(shí)序的研究
旅游學(xué)者對(duì)客觀時(shí)序的研究主要圍繞旅游行程順序、目的地游覽順序等問題展開。Zare和Pearce將心理學(xué)中的順序效應(yīng)(order effect)引入旅游學(xué)領(lǐng)域,分析了游客的游覽順序?qū)τ慰驮u(píng)估目的地的影響[70]。順序效應(yīng)指的是呈現(xiàn)的刺激順序?qū)€(gè)體最終形成的印象和判斷產(chǎn)生的影響效應(yīng),最先呈現(xiàn)的和最近呈現(xiàn)的刺激對(duì)個(gè)體的記憶程度都比其他刺激要顯著,即首因效應(yīng)(primacy effect)和近因效應(yīng)(recency effect)[71-72]。劉睿文等認(rèn)為,旅游開發(fā)過程中亦存在順序效應(yīng)現(xiàn)象,先開發(fā)的旅游項(xiàng)目會(huì)在市場上處于優(yōu)勢(shì)地位[73]。Teichert等從旅游疲勞的視角探討了城市旅游中的順序效應(yīng),研究發(fā)現(xiàn),順序效應(yīng)能夠有效地防止旅游疲勞和提高旅游滿意度[74-75]。在目的地認(rèn)知順序的基礎(chǔ)上,Oppewal等發(fā)現(xiàn)旅游者偏向選擇較早出現(xiàn)的目的地屬性信息[76]。Peluso等進(jìn)一步探究了時(shí)序知覺對(duì)目的地評(píng)價(jià)的影響,他們指出,相對(duì)于按照游覽目的地吸引力不斷下降的游覽順序,旅游者按照吸引力不斷提高的順序游覽獲得的旅游體驗(yàn)更好[77]??偟膩碚f,目前關(guān)于旅游時(shí)序的研究主要還是以順序效應(yīng)為切入點(diǎn),強(qiáng)調(diào)了首因效應(yīng)的重要性,缺乏對(duì)復(fù)雜的旅游時(shí)序問題的研究。
2.3 基于時(shí)點(diǎn)的研究
目前,旅游學(xué)者對(duì)時(shí)點(diǎn)展開的研究較為匱乏。時(shí)點(diǎn)知覺是個(gè)體調(diào)節(jié)自我與時(shí)間之間關(guān)系的重要因素[78],如時(shí)間的“新起點(diǎn)效應(yīng)”(個(gè)體使用新時(shí)點(diǎn)去描述未來)會(huì)讓個(gè)體將過去的不完美體驗(yàn)歸結(jié)于過去并對(duì)未來有更大期待[79]。董培海和李偉提出,懷舊旅游本質(zhì)上也是建立在旅游者“回到過去”的時(shí)點(diǎn)意識(shí)之上的,并且認(rèn)為懷舊是當(dāng)代旅游者重要的旅游動(dòng)機(jī)之一[80]。尚子琦等圍繞這類時(shí)間標(biāo)志展開了系列研究,不僅驗(yàn)證了時(shí)間標(biāo)志對(duì)消費(fèi)者的積極幻想和產(chǎn)品偏好的影響,還探究了時(shí)間標(biāo)志對(duì)個(gè)體自我建構(gòu)的影響,同時(shí)表明了不同時(shí)間標(biāo)志對(duì)消費(fèi)者廣告類型偏好的影響[24,81-82],為未來旅游領(lǐng)域時(shí)點(diǎn)知覺的進(jìn)一步研究提供了啟示。
終點(diǎn)效應(yīng)是與新起點(diǎn)效應(yīng)相對(duì)應(yīng)的時(shí)點(diǎn)效應(yīng)。Kurtz發(fā)現(xiàn)當(dāng)個(gè)體在終點(diǎn)時(shí)刻的體驗(yàn)較為愉快時(shí),會(huì)促進(jìn)對(duì)先前事物的積極評(píng)價(jià)[83]。因此,旅途結(jié)束時(shí)的愉快體驗(yàn)會(huì)弱化旅游者先前的消極旅游體驗(yàn)。終點(diǎn)效應(yīng)也存在于風(fēng)險(xiǎn)決策中,個(gè)體在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)決策的末期更愿意表現(xiàn)出冒險(xiǎn)精神[84]。比如在賽馬投注中,最后一輪消費(fèi)者愿意下更大的注,承擔(dān)更大的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[85]。因此,在旅游路線設(shè)計(jì)中,滿足旅游者對(duì)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的偏好[86],將具有一定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)性的旅游活動(dòng)安排在末端,更能提升旅游者的消費(fèi)意愿。時(shí)點(diǎn)不僅包含起點(diǎn)和終點(diǎn),還包括各類重大時(shí)點(diǎn)以及日歷時(shí)點(diǎn)等。比如在股票市場上,風(fēng)險(xiǎn)、收益等指標(biāo)會(huì)隨著日歷的變化而變化,即日歷效應(yīng)[87-88]。事實(shí)上,旅游節(jié)事便是一種重要的特殊時(shí)點(diǎn),因此,從時(shí)點(diǎn)問題展開旅游節(jié)事研究,是未來的一個(gè)研究方向。合理運(yùn)用新起點(diǎn)效應(yīng)、終點(diǎn)效應(yīng)以及日歷效應(yīng),能有效提升旅游者的旅游體驗(yàn)及旅游企業(yè)的經(jīng)營效益,對(duì)旅游實(shí)踐有重要意義,旅游學(xué)者需加以重視。
3 研究展望
本文基于時(shí)間視角下的旅游時(shí)間分析框架,系統(tǒng)歸納和梳理了旅游時(shí)間相關(guān)文獻(xiàn),初步理清旅游者客觀時(shí)間、時(shí)間知覺、時(shí)間觀與旅游者態(tài)度行為之間的關(guān)系,并提出研究展望。
本文提出的時(shí)間視角下的旅游時(shí)間分析框架(圖1),以時(shí)間的主客觀性和時(shí)間屬性構(gòu)建了旅游時(shí)間研究的底層架構(gòu)。在此基礎(chǔ)上,展示客觀時(shí)間。心理時(shí)間對(duì)旅游態(tài)度行為的影響作用,強(qiáng)調(diào)了心理時(shí)間在客觀時(shí)間與旅游者響應(yīng)之間的核心作用。本文圍繞旅游時(shí)間分析框架,著重對(duì)旅游心理時(shí)間研究展開了綜述,發(fā)現(xiàn)現(xiàn)有研究主要圍繞旅游客觀時(shí)間展開,針對(duì)旅游心理時(shí)間的研究較少。此外,現(xiàn)有研究傾向僅將心理時(shí)間作為旅游行為的影響因素,缺乏從主觀經(jīng)歷的角度研究心理時(shí)間本身[4]。目前,關(guān)于旅游者時(shí)間知覺的研究集中在時(shí)距知覺方面,涉及時(shí)點(diǎn)和時(shí)序知覺的部分仍較為稀缺。根據(jù)已有成果,本文認(rèn)為旅游學(xué)者未來可以在以下主題展開研究。
第一,旅游者時(shí)序知覺與時(shí)點(diǎn)知覺對(duì)旅游決策及旅游體驗(yàn)的影響。無論是時(shí)序中的順序效應(yīng),還是時(shí)點(diǎn)中的新起點(diǎn)效應(yīng)、終點(diǎn)效應(yīng)、日歷效應(yīng),目前在旅游現(xiàn)象中的討論仍不充足。在未來的研究中,學(xué)者們可以從時(shí)序與時(shí)點(diǎn)的各類屬性效應(yīng)出發(fā),探討其對(duì)旅游消費(fèi)者心理、行為決策、旅游體驗(yàn)等方面的影響。
第二,旅游心理時(shí)間與時(shí)間記憶的相互關(guān)系。對(duì)旅游主體來說,主觀的時(shí)間記憶對(duì)構(gòu)建敘事和個(gè)體身份有重要意義[89-90]。對(duì)旅游來說,時(shí)間必然伴隨著經(jīng)歷與記憶,可以將之轉(zhuǎn)化為“情結(jié)”。在旅游中,懷舊旅游、遺產(chǎn)旅游和戀地情結(jié)等是與時(shí)間記憶緊密相關(guān)的,但目前還未有學(xué)者將兩者結(jié)合進(jìn)行探討。
第三,跨文化差異對(duì)旅游心理時(shí)間的影響。已有研究表明,時(shí)間知覺、目標(biāo)價(jià)值感都會(huì)進(jìn)一步影響人們對(duì)重大目標(biāo)的追求,并且這些因素在跨文化背景下都存在一定差異。津巴多和博伊德提出,個(gè)體時(shí)間觀并不是先天決定的,而是通過生存的物理環(huán)境、生物環(huán)境以及社會(huì)和文化環(huán)境互相影響而產(chǎn)生的[47]。由于涉及種族和國家文化等復(fù)雜的差異性,還未有學(xué)者探討各類文化對(duì)旅游者時(shí)間知覺或時(shí)間觀的影響差異。另外,在跨文化交流的背景下是否會(huì)改變?nèi)藗冊(cè)诼糜螤顟B(tài)的時(shí)間知覺或時(shí)間觀,進(jìn)而改變其消費(fèi)行為,仍有待進(jìn)一步探究。
第四,旅游者時(shí)間稀缺感與時(shí)間壓力的影響。時(shí)間知覺同樣會(huì)帶來一定負(fù)面問題,如時(shí)間長短的感知在一定程度上會(huì)造成旅游者時(shí)間稀缺感和時(shí)間壓力等問題。Yin等首次從時(shí)間視角探究游客追求主觀幸福感與時(shí)間靜修活動(dòng)之間的關(guān)系,文章通過對(duì)麗江古城游客的調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn),旅游者通過改變生活環(huán)境和時(shí)間節(jié)奏,可以獲得一定心靈療愈,緩解疲憊和焦慮并提升幸福感[91]。未來的旅游研究中可以進(jìn)一步探究旅游時(shí)間知覺對(duì)旅游者日常生活負(fù)面情緒是否存在調(diào)節(jié)作用。
本文的理論貢獻(xiàn)主要體現(xiàn)在以下方面:第一,本文構(gòu)建了基于時(shí)點(diǎn)、時(shí)序和時(shí)距三屬性的旅游心理時(shí)間研究框架。旅游心理時(shí)間研究框架勾畫了旅游時(shí)間研究的邏輯框架,為后續(xù)旅游心理時(shí)間研究奠定了理論基礎(chǔ)。第二,本文從主觀心理時(shí)間的角度,歸納和梳理了旅游心理時(shí)間的研究現(xiàn)狀,有助于旅游學(xué)者對(duì)該領(lǐng)域的研究進(jìn)展有一個(gè)全面認(rèn)識(shí)。第三,本文對(duì)旅游領(lǐng)域相關(guān)心理時(shí)間研究內(nèi)容進(jìn)行了展望,這為后續(xù)學(xué)者在旅游心理時(shí)間的研究方向提供了指引。
本文還為旅游組織在經(jīng)營管理方面提供了一定實(shí)踐啟示。本文呼吁旅游組織更好地進(jìn)行時(shí)間管理轉(zhuǎn)向,從關(guān)注旅游者的客觀時(shí)間到重視旅游者的主觀時(shí)間知覺,從而更有效地設(shè)計(jì)旅游線路及提升游客體驗(yàn)。第一,對(duì)旅游目的地組織來說,要把游客的時(shí)間體驗(yàn)納入旅游線路及旅游產(chǎn)品的設(shè)計(jì),通過塑造良好的旅游時(shí)間體驗(yàn)提高目的地評(píng)價(jià)和形象。比如在旅游活動(dòng)安排上,注重游玩體驗(yàn)的最后環(huán)節(jié),提升最終的旅游體驗(yàn)和評(píng)價(jià);在旅游路線安排上,前緊后松,提高游客的舒適感。第二,對(duì)旅游企業(yè)來說,可以關(guān)注旅游消費(fèi)者不同時(shí)間觀類型進(jìn)行差異化營銷[92]。時(shí)間觀是個(gè)體人格特質(zhì)的呈現(xiàn),經(jīng)營者可以根據(jù)個(gè)體不同導(dǎo)向的時(shí)間觀進(jìn)行差異化營銷。例如年輕人的時(shí)間觀更多面向未來,更注重獲取知識(shí)目標(biāo),在旅游產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)中宜強(qiáng)調(diào)科技性或教育性。老年人時(shí)間觀更多面向現(xiàn)在,更注重情緒體驗(yàn)價(jià)值,在旅游產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)宜強(qiáng)調(diào)懷舊及鄉(xiāng)愁。第三,對(duì)旅游服務(wù)人員來說,在服務(wù)接觸過程中,要更注重顧客的時(shí)間體驗(yàn)管理,根據(jù)不同時(shí)間狀態(tài)的游客提供不同的服務(wù)。比如在導(dǎo)游講解中,對(duì)時(shí)間比較緊張的游客,提供簡潔的講解;而對(duì)時(shí)間比較寬松的游客,提供更多的信息。
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[基金項(xiàng)目]本研究受國家社會(huì)科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目“旅游業(yè)職業(yè)污名的形成路徑、作用機(jī)理與去污化策略研究” (20BGL158)資助。
[作者簡介]黎耀奇(1985—),男,廣東廣州人,博士,教授,研究方向?yàn)槁糜握邥r(shí)間觀、刻板印象與污名化、服務(wù)管理,E-mail: liyaoqi3@mail.sysu.edu.cn;江秋敏(1994—),女,江蘇南通人,博士研究生,研究方向?yàn)槁糜蜗M(fèi)者行為、時(shí)間知覺、服務(wù)管理,E-mail: jiangqm3@mail2.sysu.edu.cn,通訊作者。
Abstract: Time is the core resource that runs through peoples lives. Individuals time perception and time perspective significantly influence their psychological cognition and behavioral decisions. Although an amount of tourism studies have focused on leisure and recreational activities in unusual environments from the perspectives of temporal and spatial flow. However, research on tourism temporal issues is more frequent on objective time, while subjective time is underestimated in the field of tourism. This article proposes an analytical model for time analysis based on the subjectivity and objectivity of time and time attributes (temporal duration, temporal succession, and temporal locus). It further constructs a framework for tourism research from the perspective of psychological time. The temporal duration designates the interval that each event lawts, whereas the temporal succession designates the order in which the events or changes occur. The temporal locus represents the precise time or temporal landmark at which the event occurs. This framework allows researchers to investigate how tourists perceive time, how they take time to make decisions, and how they remember and evaluate their temporal experiences. By adopting a multidimensional perspective of time, researchers can gain a more nuanced understanding of tourism behavior and provide practical insights for tourism management and marketing. Based on a systematic literature review, this article proposes four future research directions for tourism studies under the perspective of psychological time: 1) the impact of tourists temporal succession perception and temporal locus perception on tourism decision-making and tourism experience. By understanding how tourists time perception affects their behavior, tourism practitioners can design products and services that meet tourists needs and preferences; 2) the relationship between tourists psychological time and temporal memory. By examining how tourists temporal memory works, tourism practitioners can create more memorable and satisfying experiences that lead to positive word-of-mouth; 3) cross-cultural differences and their impact on tourists psychological response and decision-making under the time framework. By studying these cultural differences, tourism practitioners can customize their services and communication strategies to different target markets and improve their cross-cultural competency; and 4) solutions to social problems such as time scarcity and time pressure. This article highlights the importance of incorporating psychological time into tourism research and provides a new perspective and direction for future studies. By developing innovative solutions that address these problems, tourism practitioners can create a more sustainable and inclusive tourism industry that benefits both tourists and local communities. Through considering the psychological time, researchers and practitioners can better understand tourists decision-making processes, experiences, and behavior, which can develop effective strategies to improve tourism services and enhance tourist experience.
Keywords: subjective psychological time; time perspective; time perception; time framework; travel time
[責(zé)任編輯:劉? ? 魯;責(zé)任校對(duì):王? ? 婧]