徐吉軍
(續(xù)上期)
在中國(guó)古代數(shù)千年的歷史長(zhǎng)河中,可以說沒有一個(gè)朝代能與宋代比民富、民樂,宋代是一個(gè)生活品質(zhì)最高的朝代。如果說唐代是一個(gè)尚武、魯直、堅(jiān)強(qiáng)、組織嚴(yán)明的社會(huì),那么宋代就是一個(gè)活潑、重商主義、好享樂的社會(huì)。在這一時(shí)期,民間的社會(huì)財(cái)富比前代呈現(xiàn)飛躍性的增長(zhǎng)。如宋真宗時(shí)期的宰相王旦就自豪地指出:“京城資產(chǎn)百萬者至多,十萬而上比比皆是?!保ɡ顮c《續(xù)資治通鑒長(zhǎng)編》卷85)唐代人驚艷的華麗器物,到宋代已經(jīng)是百姓的尋常之物。沈括在《夢(mèng)溪筆談》卷14中說道:“唐人作富貴詩,多紀(jì)其奉養(yǎng)器服之盛,乃貧眼所驚耳,如貫休《富貴詩》云:‘刻成箏柱雁相挨。此下里鬻彈者皆有之,何足道哉?”嘲笑唐人貧眼,沒有見過世面。
統(tǒng)治者也大力鼓吹及時(shí)行樂的世界觀。宋朝開國(guó)皇帝趙匡胤“杯酒釋兵權(quán)”時(shí),公開對(duì)開國(guó)功臣們說:“人生如白駒之過隙,所為好富貴者,不過欲多積金錢,厚自娛樂,使子孫無貧乏耳爾……”他以豐厚的賞賜和累世的富貴,要求開國(guó)功臣們“多置歌兒舞女,日飲酒相歡,以終其天年”(李燾《續(xù)資治通鑒長(zhǎng)編》卷2)。從此以后,兩宋上層富足權(quán)貴奢靡放縱的享受之風(fēng)一直不衰,并且這種奢靡享樂之風(fēng)一經(jīng)沾染,便以迅雷不及掩耳之勢(shì)自上而下在全民中彌漫幵來,即使是對(duì)于絕大多數(shù)中下層市民來講,也充滿了致命的誘惑。宋人王栐《燕翼詒謀錄》卷2中就有這樣的一段記述:“咸平、景德以后,粉飾太平,服用浸侈,不惟士大夫之家崇尚不己,市井閭里以華靡相勝,議者病之?!彼抉R光也說:“宗戚貴臣之家,第宅園圃,服食器用,往往窮天下之珍怪,極一時(shí)之鮮明。惟意所欲,無復(fù)分限。以豪華相尚,以儉陋相訾。厭常而好新,月異而歲殊。”(《傳家集》卷25《論財(cái)利疏》)諸如此類的記載,不勝枚舉,這正如日本著名宋史研究學(xué)者加藤繁在《中國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)史考證》中描述宋人奢靡消費(fèi)觀念時(shí)所指出的:“都市制度上的種種限制已經(jīng)除掉,居民的生活已經(jīng)頗為自由、放縱,過著享樂的日子。不用說這種變化,是由于都市人口的增加,它的交通商業(yè)的繁盛,它的財(cái)富的增大,居民的種種欲望強(qiáng)烈起來的緣故?!倍▏?guó)著名漢學(xué)家謝和耐經(jīng)過對(duì)宋代百姓日常生活的深入研究后說:“十三世紀(jì)的中國(guó),其現(xiàn)代化的程度是令人吃驚的:在人民日常生活方面,藝術(shù)、娛樂、制度、工藝技術(shù)各方面,中國(guó)是當(dāng)時(shí)世界上首屈一指的國(guó)家,其自豪足以認(rèn)為世界其他各地皆為化外之邦?!?/p>
特別是北宋都城開封和南宋都城臨安,為當(dāng)時(shí)世界上最大、最富有、最著名的城市,其居民的品質(zhì)生活,如飲食、茶道、服飾、美容、起居、插花、焚香、收藏、體育活動(dòng)、休閑旅游以及游樂活動(dòng)等,體現(xiàn)了宋人的閑情逸致,懂生活,會(huì)休閑,講究生活質(zhì)量,追求生活品質(zhì),是中外諸國(guó)的典型代表。富人們?cè)谑覂?nèi)豪華陳設(shè)、華麗衣著、精美飲食以及各種娛樂、高雅興致等方面都能得到充分的滿足。市中心區(qū)有許多專賣奢侈品的商店,來自全國(guó)各地以及海外南海各國(guó)、印度、中東等國(guó)家和地區(qū)運(yùn)來的貨物充斥市場(chǎng)。特別是“自大內(nèi)和寧門外,新路南北,早間珠玉珍異及花果時(shí)新海鮮野味奇器天下所無者,悉集于此”(《都城紀(jì)勝 · 井市》)。
在飲食上,宋代是中國(guó)飲食文化繁榮的時(shí)期,在中國(guó)飲食發(fā)展史上占有舉足輕重的地位。這一時(shí)期,飲食原料的來源進(jìn)一步擴(kuò)大,加工和制作技術(shù)也更加成熟。特別是在食品烹飪方面,取得了令人矚目的成就,從菜肴的用料方面來說,比較突出的是海味菜和魚菜興起以及菜點(diǎn)藝術(shù)化傾向出現(xiàn)。后世出現(xiàn)的幾大菜系,在宋代都已具雛形。飲食業(yè)在這一時(shí)期打破了坊市分隔的界限,出現(xiàn)了前所未有的繁榮景象,酒樓、茶坊、食店等飲食店肆遍布城鄉(xiāng)各地,并流行全日制經(jīng)營(yíng),其經(jīng)營(yíng)特色也更加顯著。富人們?cè)谏萑A宴會(huì)中一擲千金、尋求快樂的滿足成為當(dāng)時(shí)風(fēng)行的價(jià)值觀,城市中笙歌處處,宴飲不斷。周密《齊東野語》中記載了一次上層社會(huì)的豪華晚宴:“酒競(jìng),歌者、樂者無慮數(shù)百十人,列行送客。燭光香霧,歌吹雜作,客皆恍然如仙游也?!庇捎陲嬍持苯雨P(guān)系到人們的身心健康,因此時(shí)人還非常重視食品、炊具、飲食器皿等的衛(wèi)生。茶文化與酒文化,在宋代也有不俗的表現(xiàn),尤其是茶文化在唐代的基礎(chǔ)上又有了進(jìn)一步的發(fā)展,成為一種高雅的文化活動(dòng)。毫無疑義,這是文明進(jìn)步的結(jié)果。
日趨新異的服飾,迅速突破了封建統(tǒng)治者對(duì)貴賤標(biāo)識(shí)的劃分。不論是服色、服式,還是腰帶、頭飾或其他佩件的限制,這些服飾禮儀上的細(xì)節(jié),幾乎都在富商們與日俱增的狂妄傲慢下,被直接、間接地破壞殆盡了。士民們不僅公然穿著一些被視為違禁衣飾在大街上昂首闊步,而且這些違禁衣飾還開始在市場(chǎng)上公開出售或作為市民們婚嫁時(shí)必備的彩禮之一。市民們“衣不肯著布縷綢絹、衲絮缊敝、澣濯補(bǔ)綻之服,必要綺羅綾縠、絞綃靡麗、新鮮華粲、絺繒繪畫、時(shí)樣奇巧、珍貴殊異,務(wù)以夸俗而勝人”(陽枋《字溪集》卷9《雜著 · 辨惑》)。服裝式樣變化無常,人們注重衣裝的品質(zhì),“男子服帶犀玉,婦人涂飾金珠”,城中男女大多數(shù)穿著絲綢服裝,遍體錦繡,尤其是商家巨賈的婦人們,更是衣著華麗,所佩戴珠寶飾物之多,難以估計(jì)其價(jià)值。當(dāng)時(shí)婦人們施粉黛花鈿,著好衣裳,稱“鮮妝帕服”;重視梳妝打扮,稱為“修容”。臨安人吳自牧則驚呼:“自淳祐年來,衣冠更易,有一等晚年后生,不體舊規(guī),裹奇巾異服,三五成群,斗美夸麗,殊令人厭見,非復(fù)舊時(shí)淳樸矣?!保ā秹?mèng)粱錄》卷18《民俗》)這種消費(fèi)行為和消費(fèi)觀念上追求奢華的表現(xiàn),無疑充分展示了宋人追求個(gè)性、追求美的精神風(fēng)采。
在住房、肩輿和日用品方面的奢侈現(xiàn)象,也不亞于服飾和飲食。江少虞《宋朝事實(shí)類苑》卷62《杭人好飾門窗什器》說:“杭人素輕夸,好美潔,家有百金,必以大半飾門窗,具什器。”達(dá)官富人們對(duì)其起居宅第的營(yíng)建,一擲千金,毫無吝嗇。珍貴的沉香木和檀木,遠(yuǎn)從熱帶地區(qū)運(yùn)來,以為主梁支柱之用,地板則鋪以上釉的瓷磚,甚至有以銀片飾成花卉圖案鑲嵌的。至于屋梁外露部分,皆飾以雕刻,畫上華麗的圖案。屋檐習(xí)用白鷺鳥、龍、鳳等陶制動(dòng)物飾物,檐角上翹,和諧而完美,和周圍山林水色相映成趣。住宅不僅裝飾華麗,雕梁畫棟,里面還陳列了不計(jì)其數(shù)的名貴飾品、圖畫和古物。
當(dāng)人們的物質(zhì)需求得到一定的滿足之后,愈加渴望精神層面上的歡樂享受,希望在豐富多彩的文化娛樂中陶冶情操,得到美的享受,開始注重生活的情調(diào)和品質(zhì)。于是,士庶百姓喜聞樂見的文化娛樂生活亦相應(yīng)得到了長(zhǎng)足的發(fā)展。在城市中,既適合宮廷貴族、富商豪民的游玩,又投合于都市小民無聊時(shí)休閑娛樂的具有開放性和多樣性的市民文化興起。勾欄瓦肆和歌樓、舞榭、酒館等作為最具名聲的娛樂場(chǎng)所,已經(jīng)成為兩宋都城的金名片。特別是繁盛的勾欄瓦肆作為城市底層民眾日常消遣娛樂的大型綜合性商業(yè)娛樂場(chǎng)所,更為廣泛地滲透到了他們的日常生活之中,激發(fā)出前所未有的興趣和熱情,成為經(jīng)濟(jì)消費(fèi)和娛樂享受的集散地。東京有大小勾欄50余座,其中最大的可容數(shù)千人。臨安有大小瓦子23座,其中,南瓦、中瓦、上瓦、下瓦更分別被冠以“衣山衣海、卦山卦海、南山南海、人山人?!保ā段骱先朔眲黉洝罚┑膭e稱。瓦舍有固定的演出場(chǎng)地,以勾欄演出為中心,人們每天都可以看到各種戲曲、雜技、歌舞、說唱之類的表演,如:雜劇、雜手伎、弄蟲蟻、皮影戲、傀儡戲、鼓子詞、諸宮調(diào)、舞蹈、小兒相撲、散樂、小說、雜技、大曲、說書、講史、小唱、說諢話等大眾所喜聞樂見的、雅俗共賞的文化娛樂形式,應(yīng)有盡有。各類民間表演節(jié)目花樣繁多,精彩紛呈。歌伎樂師等表演藝人在此淋漓盡致地施展自己的藝術(shù)才華,各展神通,或以繞梁三日婉轉(zhuǎn)之歌喉,或以柳暗花明講說之情節(jié),或以捧腹而笑戲謔之言語,或以驚險(xiǎn)萬分雜耍之表演,給觀眾從感官到心靈上的震撼與沖擊,令人目不暇接、目瞪口呆,讓人流連忘返、如癡如醉。另外,瓦子里還出售戲劇糖果和紙畫等活動(dòng)文化商品及其他百貨。據(jù)考證,幵封和臨安瓦肆內(nèi)的觀眾數(shù)量每天約有“五萬人之多”,三教九流、各方人物癡迷于此,以為暇日娛戲排遣之地,他們“不以風(fēng)雨寒暑,諸棚看人,日日如是;終日居此,不覺抵暮” (見《東京夢(mèng)華錄 ·? 京瓦伎藝》)。這正如詞人柳永筆下的歡阜社會(huì),“玉城金諧舞舜于朝野多歡”“太平時(shí)、朝野多歡民康阜”,仿佛生活在一個(gè)歌舞升平的世界里。藝術(shù)的商業(yè)化,不僅豐富了市井百姓的娛樂和休閑生活,同時(shí)不斷有所創(chuàng)新,產(chǎn)生了新的審美觀念,從而影響了前朝歷代所承襲的各種傳統(tǒng)的表演形式和美學(xué)觀點(diǎn),有力地推進(jìn)了文學(xué)藝術(shù)的創(chuàng)作和發(fā)展。同時(shí),它也導(dǎo)致形式各樣的文化娛樂活動(dòng)的出現(xiàn),融娛樂與健身于一體的踢球、相撲、武術(shù)、弄潮、競(jìng)渡、棋類等文體活動(dòng),也在宋代風(fēng)行一時(shí)。
琴棋書畫、音樂歌舞、魚蟲花鳥等成為一種時(shí)尚,成為時(shí)人追求精神文化消費(fèi)的另一個(gè)重要風(fēng)向標(biāo),體現(xiàn)出宋人求精致、講安逸、會(huì)休閑的生活特點(diǎn),也反映了宋代百姓注重生活與勞作結(jié)合的特色。特別是到了北宋晚期,“一時(shí)人士,相率以成風(fēng)尚者,章蘸也,花鳥也,竹石也,鐘鼎也,圖畫也。清歌妙舞,狹邪冶游,終日疲役而不知倦”(王夫之《宋論》)。在城市里,音樂已經(jīng)轉(zhuǎn)向平民化,專門設(shè)有一些專供百戲唱游之所,教坊、茶樓等處成為習(xí)藝娛樂的場(chǎng)所,經(jīng)營(yíng)者教人戲曲、歌唱、演奏樂器。吳自牧《夢(mèng)粱錄》卷16《茶肆》曾一語道破其間的關(guān)系:“汴京熟食店張掛名畫,所以勾引觀者,留連食客。今杭城茶肆亦如之,插四時(shí)花,掛名人畫,裝點(diǎn)店面,四時(shí)賣奇茶異湯?!裰杷粒谢?,安頓奇松異檜等物于其上,裝飾店面;敲打響盞歌賣,止用瓷盞漆拓,供賣則無銀盂物也?!蠓膊铇嵌嘤懈皇易拥?、諸司下直等人會(huì)聚,習(xí)學(xué)樂器、上教曲賺之類,謂之‘掛牌兒。人情茶肆,本非以點(diǎn)茶湯為業(yè),但將此為由多覓茶金耳?!眳⑴c音樂活動(dòng)的階層廣泛,演藝場(chǎng)所多樣化,特別是軍樂與佛道音樂等的活躍,使音樂活動(dòng)異彩紛呈,極大地豐富了市民的精神文化生活。鮮花、書畫等作為修飾生活環(huán)境的重要物品,能起到讓人“目不暫舍”的功效,以獲得身心的滿足、精神的愉悅。在當(dāng)時(shí),人們對(duì)鮮花、書畫、書籍等精神文化物品的需求是相當(dāng)高的,官僚士大夫不再是上述物品消費(fèi)的唯一主體,更為廣大的市民包括農(nóng)民都已成為消費(fèi)者,可以說,鮮花、書畫、書籍等精神文化物品已經(jīng)在宋代走進(jìn)了千家萬戶。東京大相國(guó)寺每月都舉行廟會(huì),百貨云集,其中就有許多售賣書籍、書畫、古玩、珠寶等的攤店;臨安夜市也同樣有此類物品出售。居民住宅借由鮮花、盆景、名家書畫等來表達(dá)對(duì)生活的祈福,如“而市人門首各設(shè)大盆,雜植艾虎、葵花,上掛五色紙錢、排饤果粽。雖貧者亦然” “雖小家無花瓶者,用小壇也插一瓶花供養(yǎng),蓋鄉(xiāng)土風(fēng)俗如此”(周密《武林舊事》卷3《端午》等)。酒樓、茶樓、歌樓等均以懸掛書畫、瓶插鮮花等美化店堂,作為吸引顧客的手段。宋代皇帝喜好書畫,曾多次派使臣到全國(guó)各地訪求和購買。例如《宣和畫譜》載宋徽宗搜集的6393件作品,其中有相當(dāng)部分就購自市場(chǎng)和民間。宋高宗對(duì)書畫也非常熱愛。南宋初建,高宗甚至于“干戈擾攘之際,訪求法書名畫不遺余力。清閑之燕,展玩摹搨不少。怠蓋睿好之篤,不憚勞費(fèi),故四方爭(zhēng)以奉上無虛日”,后又“于榷場(chǎng)購北方遺失之物,故紹興內(nèi)府所藏不減宣政”(周密《齊東野語》卷6《紹興御府書畫式》)。在皇帝的影響下,宮廷畫家和達(dá)官富人們普遍熱衷于收藏,高價(jià)收購民間的精品供自己觀賞,如名家書畫、奇石、玉器、古鐘銘鼎器、石碑等,并由此產(chǎn)生了眾多的鑒賞家。開封、臨安等地的市民遇有喜慶宴會(huì)和元宵、清明、端午、七夕、除夕等節(jié)慶,往往盛行到市場(chǎng)上購買門神、鐘馗等年畫節(jié)日文化用品。
在這一時(shí)期,越來越多的精神文化類產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)走向市場(chǎng)化,成為社會(huì)消費(fèi)領(lǐng)域中的重要組成部分。隨著文化的普及和商品經(jīng)濟(jì)的大發(fā)展,筆墨紙硯作為重要的文化用品,其商品化的程度已經(jīng)很高了,生產(chǎn)上具有了產(chǎn)區(qū)化、品牌化的特征。而雕版印刷技術(shù)的發(fā)展,又使書籍、報(bào)紙等廣為流布和刊印。圖書內(nèi)容廣博,教材以外的其他類圖書也在這種變革大潮中得到快速發(fā)展,如小說、戲曲、野史、評(píng)話、堪輿、佛經(jīng)等都廣受歡迎。城鎮(zhèn)圖書市場(chǎng)相當(dāng)活躍,商業(yè)性書坊、書肆(或稱書房、書鋪)大量興起,遍布全國(guó)各地。圖書數(shù)量大幅增加,其售賣方式多樣化,價(jià)格的制定也符合市場(chǎng)特點(diǎn),即與產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量、供求關(guān)系及消費(fèi)偏好相關(guān)。正如《四庫總目》中說:“宋以后則一切賞心悅目之具,無不勒有成編,圖籍于是始眾焉?!?/p>
與此同時(shí),宋人崇尚游樂,“不特富家巨室為然,雖貧賤之人,亦且對(duì)時(shí)行樂也”(《夢(mèng)粱錄》卷3《五月(重午附)》)。“不論貧富,游玩琳宮梵宇,竟日不絕。家家飲宴,笑語喧嘩?!保ā秹?mèng)粱錄》卷1《正月》)在此背景下,旅游之風(fēng)興起。舉國(guó)矚目、令人心儀的南北兩京,自然成為游人向往與追求之地,出現(xiàn)了“游人士庶,車馬萬數(shù)”的簇?fù)砭跋?。特別是開封的金明池和臨安的西湖,更是成為游人的玩享之地。北宋開封,“人煙浩穰,添十?dāng)?shù)萬眾不加多,減之不覺少。所謂花陣酒池,香山藥海。別有幽坊小巷,燕館歌樓,舉之萬數(shù),不欲繁碎”(孟元老《東京夢(mèng)華錄》卷5《民俗》) 。臨安同樣如此,吳自牧在《夢(mèng)粱錄》卷1《八日祠山圣誕》說:“大抵杭州勝景,全在西湖,他郡無此,更兼仲春景色明媚,花事方殷,正是公子王孫,五陵年少,賞心樂事之時(shí),詎宜虛度?至如貧者,亦解質(zhì)借兌,帶妻挾子,竟日嬉游,不醉不歸。此邦風(fēng)俗,從古而然,至今亦不改也。”進(jìn)入都城的游人,不僅享受著都城的繁榮盛景,也享受著都城各行各業(yè)“百物具備,賓至如歸”的高品質(zhì)服務(wù),這充分反映出宋人生活水平的提高以及對(duì)享受美好生活的愿景。需要指出的是,最能體現(xiàn)追求自由、享受“人性”的例子便是兩宋都城內(nèi)女性夜游消遣等行為。史料記載,東京舊曹門街“北山子茶坊,內(nèi)有仙洞、仙橋,仕女往往夜游,吃茶于彼”“間列舞場(chǎng)歌館,車馬交馳。向晚,貴家婦女縱賞關(guān)賭,入場(chǎng)觀看,入市店飲宴,慣習(xí)成風(fēng),不相笑訝。至寒食、冬至三日亦如此。小民雖貧者,亦須新潔衣服,把酒相酬?duì)枴保ā稏|京夢(mèng)華錄》卷2《潘樓東街巷》、卷6《正月》)。毫無疑義,宋代都城女性的這種肆意無羈夜游玩享的行為,是對(duì)傳統(tǒng)的、保守的封建禮教觀念的顛覆,是對(duì)人之本性的解放,應(yīng)值得肯定。當(dāng)然除上述外,精神享樂消費(fèi)主體還有博彩、占卜以及一些宗教信仰活動(dòng)。因限于篇幅,此不贅述。
人們的交往范圍已不再局限于與世隔絕的狹窄的小圈里,那種疏于交往的習(xí)慣正在得到改變,這便是宋代雅集和會(huì)社的興起。由于城市人口稠密和城中各種商販?zhǔn)渴宋镫s處,大大增加了不同階層人士交往接觸的機(jī)會(huì),使他們之間更為息息相關(guān)。當(dāng)時(shí)城中有許多社交聚會(huì)場(chǎng)所和飲宴休閑玩樂場(chǎng)所,于是種種團(tuán)體會(huì)社的組織,諸如文學(xué)、競(jìng)技或宗教性質(zhì)的會(huì)社相繼出現(xiàn)。其中臨安著名的有西湖詩社,它網(wǎng)羅了城中名士和四方流寓儒人競(jìng)相賦詠,各逞詩詞,對(duì)于十二三世紀(jì)中國(guó)文學(xué)藝術(shù)的發(fā)展頗有影響。此外,軍人武士們有弓踏弩社,風(fēng)流子弟們有蹴鞠打球射水弩社,奉道者有靈寶會(huì),又有錦體社、臺(tái)閣社、窮富賭錢社、遏云社、女童清音社、蘇家巷傀儡社、青果行獻(xiàn)時(shí)果社……這種名目繁多的會(huì)社,為市民提供了眾多的社交場(chǎng)所,也創(chuàng)造了廣泛的接觸機(jī)會(huì)。
總之,上述的宋人品質(zhì)生活雖然不能涵蓋所有,但基本能代表其水平和發(fā)展趨向,即在繼承前代的基礎(chǔ)上,從物質(zhì)載體到精神內(nèi)涵,其內(nèi)容越來越豐富,水平越來越高,并不斷趨于多元化,呈現(xiàn)出一派生機(jī)盎然的景象。同時(shí),打破了過去沉悶的思想狀態(tài),使整個(gè)社會(huì)煥發(fā)出一種開放、自由、活力、安詳且不拘束的時(shí)代精神風(fēng)貌。
(作者系浙江省社科院歷史所原所長(zhǎng))
Cultural Splendor of the Song Dynasty (VII)
By Xu Jijun
Throughout Chinese history, no other dynasty arguably can compare with the Song dynasty (960-1279) when it comes to peoples wealth, leisure activities and entertainment. The quality of life during the Song was supposed to be among the highest. While Tang (618-907) is generally seen as warlike, well-organized and disciplined, Song is considered more mercantile, and even hedonic and debauched. As Wang Dan (957-1017), a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Zhenzong (968-1022), proudly claimed, ”People in the capital city worth millions are many, and those worth tens of thousands uncountable.”
The wares, such as pottery and porcelain vases and mugs, as well as wine cups, that the Tang people saw as resplendent were commonplace items usually found in ordinary Song peoples homes. In his opus Mengxi Bitan, or The Dream Pool Essays, the Song scientist Shen Kuo (1031-1095) said half in earnest and half in jest, “The Tang people composed many poems on how plenty and rich their wares were, simply because they are too poor…Now, even street performers own these items.”
The Song sovereigns would undoubtedly endorse what Shen said. Zhao Kuangyin (927-976), the founding emperor of Song, publicly stated when he infamously “relieved the generals of their power at a feast”, “l(fā)ife is gone with just a spin of a wheel, and for those who aspire to be rich, they simply hope to accumulate more wealth for themselves and their posterities...” He then bestowed rewards and riches worth generations on these generals, and asked them “to buy plenty of dancers, indulge in drinking every day and live happily until the end”.
It is true that Zhao Kuangyins words were primarily intended as a political maneuver, but they also portended what was to come. Thanks to the much freer development of commerce and business, Songs economy was highly advanced. The upper classes in the Song period were invariably avid in their pursuit of pleasure, which later quickly spread among the whole society. Even common people were “extravagant” in their consumption. The French sinologist Jacques Gernet therefore concluded after extensive research on this period: “Thirteen-century China is striking for its modernism…In the spheres of social life, art, amusements, institutions and technology, China was incontestably the most advanced country of the time. She had every right to consider the rest of the world as peopled by mere barbarians.”
In Kaifeng, capital of the Northern Song (960-1127), and Linan (present-day Hangzhou), capital of the Southern Song (1127-1279), two of the worlds largest and richest cities at the time, the leisure and entertainment that local residents were engaging in were so varied, including among others food, tea ceremony, clothing, beauty, living, flower arrangement, incense, collection, sports, travel and games and toys, that they became magnets for neighboring countries and regions. Marco Polo (1254-1324), the Venetian merchant and explorer, famously proclaimed that the city of Hangzhou was “beyond dispute the finest and the noblest in the world”. He marveled that “the number and wealth of the merchants, and the amount of goods that passed through their hands, was so enormous that no man could form a just estimate thereof”.
The Song dynasty was among the most prosperous in food culture. In this period, the sources of food materials were further expanded, and food processing and production technology were further developed. In terms of cooking, remarkable progress had been made, particularly the rise of seafood and fish dishes and the tendency to treat dishes as arts. In fact, it is during the Song that prototypes of the so-called major cuisines of China emerged. Thanks to the collapse of the Fang-Shi (walled ward) System, physical barriers were virtually nonexistent for the catering industry. Restaurants, tea houses, eateries could be found everywhere in the city. Spending heavily on feasts seemed to become a fashion of the day.
The Song people cared as much about clothing and housing as about food. Hierarchies imposed through clothing styles, colors and accessories were rapidly broken as rich merchants binged on clothes used to be the reserve of the aristocrats. The common people followed suit, putting them on publicly with no compunction. People spent even more on their houses. The rich and powerful, in particular, splurged on precious wood, ceramic tiles, rare paintings and antiques when building and decorating their mansions.
When material needs are satisfied, spiritual quests often follow, which, during the Song dynasty, was best shown in peoples leisure activities and cultural pursuits. In Northern Song, Washe, a special area for public entertainment, and Goulan, theatres in the form of fenced-off rings, could be found in every part of the capital city; there were a toal of 50 Goulan in Kaifeng, some able to house up to 1,000 spectators. In Southern Song, as many as 23 Washe were in the capital Linan. Day and night, rain or shine, entertainment and performances would be on. Music, chess, calligraphy and painting — the so-called four arts of Chinese scholars — also flourished, and specialized markets for artworks, antiques and curios, flowers and pet animals (i.e. fish and birds), inkstones, ink brushes, papers and printed books, prospered.
Meanwhile, the Song people also loved traveling. Rich or poor, every day there were a large number of people and families going out journeying. Kaifeng and Linan, the two capital cities, became the natural choices, and Jinming Lake (literally “Golden Bright Lake”) in Kaifeng and the West Lake in Linan were the favorite destinations. One notable development was that women were recorded to live a much freer life, seeking fun on their own at night, drinking and gambling without restraints.
In the final analysis, people in the Song dynasty enjoyed a much richer and diverse life in both the material and the spiritual spheres. Building on the previous dynasties and relying on its economic and commercial development, the whole society glowed with a spirit of openness, freedom, dynamism, serenity and uninhibition.