陸洋宇 席苒琿 鄭欣 何金枝 徐欣
味覺受體信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)機(jī)制及對(duì)微生物的調(diào)控
陸洋宇 席苒琿 鄭欣 何金枝 徐欣
口腔疾病研究國(guó)家重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室,國(guó)家口腔疾病臨床醫(yī)學(xué)研究中心,四川大學(xué)華西口腔醫(yī)院牙體牙髓病科,成都610041
口腔味蕾細(xì)胞中的味覺受體有助于機(jī)體鑒別營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)和有害物質(zhì),對(duì)哺乳動(dòng)物的生存具有重要意義。近年來(lái)發(fā)現(xiàn),味覺受體及其下游信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路還在呼吸道、大腦、胃腸道等多種組織細(xì)胞中表達(dá)。表達(dá)味覺受體的細(xì)胞統(tǒng)稱為化學(xué)感官細(xì)胞,在抵抗微生物感染、調(diào)節(jié)營(yíng)養(yǎng)吸收、維持內(nèi)環(huán)境穩(wěn)態(tài)中發(fā)揮重要作用。目前已發(fā)現(xiàn)多種組織細(xì)胞中的味覺受體可識(shí)別細(xì)菌等微生物,介導(dǎo)宿主免疫應(yīng)答反應(yīng),在感染性疾病發(fā)生發(fā)展過(guò)程中起到重要作用。本文就味覺受體的信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)機(jī)制及其對(duì)微生物的調(diào)控作用進(jìn)行綜述。
味覺受體;微生物;化學(xué)感官細(xì)胞;固有免疫
味覺指口腔內(nèi)味覺感受器官受外界物質(zhì)刺激后產(chǎn)生味覺信號(hào),傳導(dǎo)至中樞味覺神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)所引發(fā)的一種感覺。哺乳動(dòng)物可感受酸、甜、苦、咸、鮮5種味道[1],不同的味覺有助于機(jī)體鑒別營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)和有毒有害物質(zhì),對(duì)人和其他哺乳動(dòng)物的生存具有重要意義。目前對(duì)味蕾中味覺受體信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)和調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制的研究較為深入。除味蕾中的味覺細(xì)胞外,分布于呼吸道、大腦、胰腺和腸道等部位的組織細(xì)胞也可表達(dá)味覺受體,這類細(xì)胞皆屬于味蕾外的化學(xué)感官細(xì)胞(extragustatorychemosensorycells)[2],它們不與神經(jīng)元偶聯(lián),不向中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)傳遞味覺信號(hào),但在抵抗微生物感染、調(diào)節(jié)營(yíng)養(yǎng)吸收、維持內(nèi)環(huán)境穩(wěn)態(tài)中起著重要作用,對(duì)相關(guān)組織器官和機(jī)體疾病的發(fā)展可以產(chǎn)生重要影響[3-4]。本文就味覺受體的種類、信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)機(jī)制、在機(jī)體中的表達(dá)及其對(duì)微生物的調(diào)控作用進(jìn)行綜述。
味覺受體最早發(fā)現(xiàn)于舌背味蕾中[5]。哺乳動(dòng)物苦味、甜味和鮮味受體均為G蛋白偶聯(lián)受體(G-protein-coupled receptors,GPCRs),是一類7次跨膜蛋白,表達(dá)于味蕾Ⅱ型細(xì)胞,即味覺受體細(xì)胞(taste receptor cell,TRC)。味覺受體細(xì)胞同時(shí)還可表達(dá)與味覺信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)相關(guān)的下游分子,如α-味導(dǎo)素(α-gustducin)、磷脂酶C (phospholipase C,PLC)β2和瞬時(shí)電位離子通道M5(transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M member 5,TRPM5)等[6]。咸味和酸味受體與味蕾其他型細(xì)胞上的離子通道相關(guān)[7-8]。目前對(duì)哺乳動(dòng)物苦味、甜味和鮮味受體的研究較為清楚,而對(duì)咸味或酸味受體的研究尚未十分明確,故本文僅對(duì)苦味、甜味和鮮味受體進(jìn)行介紹。
1.1 苦味受體
味覺受體第二家族成員(taste receptor family 2 member,T2R)介導(dǎo)苦味的感知[9]。目前已知的人類T2R有25種,其編碼基因位于基因組染色體的5p15、7q31、12p13[10];而大鼠T2R有37種,小鼠有35種[11]。迄今為止,十余種人類T2R的功能已被鑒定[12],其中T2R4可與奎寧(quinine)結(jié)合[13],T2R38可感受苯基硫脲(phenylthiocarbamide,PTC)、6-N-丙基-2-硫脲嘧啶(propylthiouracil,PROP)等含有N-C═S化學(xué)鍵的物質(zhì)刺激[14],T2R46可特異性識(shí)別地那銨(denatonium)和苦艾素(absinthin)[12]。
hTAS2R38是目前研究相對(duì)明確的苦味受體編碼基因。研究[14-15]發(fā)現(xiàn),hTAS2R38基因3個(gè)位點(diǎn)上的單核苷酸多態(tài)性可以造成T2R38第49、262和296位點(diǎn)的氨基酸殘基的不同,導(dǎo)致個(gè)體感知PTC、PROP等苦味劑能力的差異。T2R38有兩種最常見的單體型,一種在上述3個(gè)位點(diǎn)分別編碼脯氨酸、丙氨酸和纈氨酸,構(gòu)成功能性T2R38(PAV);另一種則分別編碼丙氨酸、纈氨酸和異亮氨酸,構(gòu)成非功能性T2R38(AVI)[14-15]。結(jié)構(gòu)分析研究[16]表明,PTC和PROP兩種苦味物質(zhì)以氫鍵結(jié)合于hTAS2R38PAV、hTAS2R38AAI第262位點(diǎn)的氨基酸殘基上,與受體形成穩(wěn)定結(jié)構(gòu),無(wú)法與hTAS2R38AVI形成氫鍵結(jié)合,推測(cè)苦味受體第262位氨基酸殘基與受體的激活和苦味的感受密切相關(guān)。臨床調(diào)查[15]發(fā)現(xiàn),美洲土著居民只有PAV這一單體型;亞洲人種有PAV和AVI兩種單體型;歐洲人除了PAV和AVI兩型外,還存在AAV單體型;而非洲人則比歐洲人還要多出AAI和PVI這兩種單體型。兩種常見的單體型PAV和AVI構(gòu)成3種基因型,純合子PAV/PAV個(gè)體對(duì)PTC苦味的感知能力最強(qiáng),被稱為味覺靈敏者(supertaster),基因型為AVI/AVI的個(gè)體對(duì)苦味的感知能力最弱,被稱為味盲者(nontaster),雜合子PAV/AVI對(duì)苦味的感知能力介于上述兩者之間[15]。針對(duì)PTC的味盲者較為常見,在格陵蘭島愛斯基摩人中發(fā)生率高達(dá)53.5%,歐美人群為1.4%~36.8%,我國(guó)則為5%~23%[17]。
1.2 甜味和鮮味味覺受體
味覺受體第一家族成員(taste receptor family 1 member,T1R)介導(dǎo)甜味和鮮味的感知。T1R由T1R1、T1R2及T1R3構(gòu)成。T1R2和T1R3以二聚體的形式共表達(dá)于味蕾Ⅱ型細(xì)胞,可感知糖、人工代糖或者蛋白代糖等物質(zhì)的刺激[18-19]。T1R2/3基因雙敲除小鼠完全喪失對(duì)多種甜味物質(zhì)的感知能力[18],說(shuō)明T1R2、T1R3與甜味感知密切相關(guān)。有研究[19-20]發(fā)現(xiàn),味覺細(xì)胞可表達(dá)葡萄糖轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)體(glucose transporters,GLUTs)、鈉-葡萄糖共轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)載體(sodium glucose cotransporter 1,SGLT1)、三磷酸腺苷門控K+通道和α-糖苷酶,它們很有可能是獨(dú)立于T1Rs的糖類物質(zhì)感知受體。
哺乳動(dòng)物味覺細(xì)胞表達(dá)T1R1與T1R3二聚體來(lái)感受蛋白質(zhì)與氨基酸產(chǎn)生的鮮味。T1R1或T1R3單基因敲除小鼠對(duì)L-氨基酸的感知能力減弱[18]。人類T1R1/3二聚體只能識(shí)別L-谷氨酸和L-天門冬氨酸,小鼠鮮味受體則可識(shí)別多種氨基酸[21]。此外,代謝型谷氨酸受體(metabotropic glutamate receptors,mGluRs)與L-氨基酸的感知相關(guān)[22]。
1.3 味覺中起基本信號(hào)分子作用的蛋白質(zhì)及信號(hào)通路
T1Rs與mGluRs屬于C級(jí)GPCRs,含有由較長(zhǎng)的氨基末端形成的胞外結(jié)構(gòu)域和7次跨膜螺旋區(qū)域,胞外結(jié)構(gòu)域中的捕蠅夾域(venus flytrap domains,VFTD)作為各種配體分子的主要結(jié)合位點(diǎn)[23]。T2Rs屬于A級(jí)GPCRs,其氨基末端較短,不形成大的胞外結(jié)構(gòu)域,配體分子主要識(shí)別蛋白的跨膜螺旋區(qū)域[24]。
盡管受體蛋白結(jié)構(gòu)不同,但苦、甜、鮮味刺激所引起的味覺受體細(xì)胞分子信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)通路相同[25]。呈味物質(zhì)作用于GPCRs后,促使其解離為Gα和Gβγ亞基。Gβγ亞基進(jìn)一步分解為Gβ3和Gγ13,活化PLCβ2,將細(xì)胞膜上的磷脂水解為甘油二酯和三磷酸肌醇(inositol trisphosphate,IP3)[26],IP3與細(xì)胞內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)上的受體IP3R3結(jié)合,使內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)釋放Ca2+于細(xì)胞質(zhì)中??辔痘蝓r味物質(zhì)與相應(yīng)味覺受體結(jié)合可活化Gα亞基成員α-味導(dǎo)素,激活磷酸二酯酶(phosphodiesterase,PDE),PDE將環(huán)磷酸腺苷(cyclic adenosine monophosphate,cAMP)轉(zhuǎn)化為腺苷酸(adenosine monophosphate,AMP),降低細(xì)胞內(nèi)cAMP的濃度,從而減弱蛋白激酶A(protein kinase A,PKA)的活性,解除PKA對(duì)PLCβ2/IP3通路的抑制,促進(jìn)胞內(nèi)Ca2+的釋放[25]。甜味受體被激活后,活化的Gα亞基可激活腺苷酸環(huán)化酶(adenylyl cyclase,AC),使胞內(nèi)cAMP濃度升高,PKA活性增強(qiáng),K+通道被抑制,胞外Ca2+內(nèi)流[7]。細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+濃度升高,一方面開放離子通道TRPM5,使細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生動(dòng)作電位,釋放神經(jīng)遞質(zhì)ATP,引發(fā)味覺神經(jīng)興奮;另一方面,Ca2+可活化間隙連接半通道蛋白,利于ATP的釋放[7,24]。
除味蕾Ⅱ型味覺細(xì)胞外,分布于呼吸道、咽鼓管、膀胱、大腦、乳腺、心臟、腸道、胰腺、尿道及睪丸等部位的味蕾外化學(xué)感官細(xì)胞可通過(guò)表達(dá)味覺受體,感受外環(huán)境刺激,參與機(jī)體固有免疫、葡萄糖轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)與代謝、平滑肌收縮、鈣磷調(diào)節(jié)等一系列生理活動(dòng)[3-4]。研究[27-30]發(fā)現(xiàn),味蕾外化學(xué)感官細(xì)胞表面味覺受體可識(shí)別細(xì)菌等微生物,激活下游信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)級(jí)聯(lián)反應(yīng),通過(guò)合成抗菌肽/一氧化氮等,調(diào)控所在部位微生物的生長(zhǎng)定植,參與宿主與微生物穩(wěn)態(tài)維持。
2.1 苦味受體對(duì)革蘭陰性菌密度感應(yīng)分子的感知
鼻竇上皮中含有由三叉神經(jīng)支配的孤立化學(xué)感受細(xì)胞(solitary chemosensory cells,SCCs),這些細(xì)胞可表達(dá)苦味受體T2Rs及其相應(yīng)的下游信號(hào)分子α-味導(dǎo)素、PLCβ2、TRPM5等。體內(nèi)研究[27]表明,銅綠假單胞菌分泌的密度感應(yīng)分子N-酰基高絲氨酸內(nèi)酯(acyl-homoserine lactones,AHLs)可引起SCCs細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+濃度升高,該信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)通過(guò)GPCR/PLCβ2通路,類似于味覺傳導(dǎo)[27,29],最終激活小鼠三叉神經(jīng),引發(fā)打噴嚏、呼吸道黏膜局部炎癥等防御性反應(yīng)。
苦味受體T2R38可表達(dá)于人支氣管和鼻竇纖毛上皮細(xì)胞上,是上呼吸道免疫應(yīng)答反應(yīng)的重要組成部分。該受體可被PTC和銅綠假單胞菌等革蘭陰性菌分泌的AHLs激活,引起細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+濃度升高。AHLs激活T2R38引起的胞內(nèi)Ca2+濃度升高可活化一氧化氮合成酶,使細(xì)胞合成并分泌一氧化氮,增加纖毛的擺動(dòng)頻率,增強(qiáng)呼吸道纖毛清除致病物質(zhì)的能力[28,31]。一氧化氮釋放于呼吸道還可干擾細(xì)菌的黏附和細(xì)菌生物膜的形成,起到殺菌作用,降低呼吸道的細(xì)菌感染[28,32]。以上研究結(jié)果表明,呼吸道中表達(dá)的苦味受體通過(guò)監(jiān)測(cè)革蘭陰性菌的密度感應(yīng)分子AHLs,介導(dǎo)一系列呼吸道固有免疫應(yīng)答反應(yīng)并產(chǎn)生抗菌效應(yīng),在預(yù)防和清除呼吸道細(xì)菌感染中起到重要作用。
外周血單核細(xì)胞和中性粒細(xì)胞表面也表達(dá)T2R38受體,可特異性結(jié)合銅綠假單胞菌密度感應(yīng)分子AHL-12,激活細(xì)胞趨化與吞噬功能,在宿主對(duì)生物膜感染早期應(yīng)答過(guò)程中具有重要作用[33]。此外,胰腺癌的癌細(xì)胞也存在T2R38的表達(dá),T2R38主要表達(dá)于這些細(xì)胞的脂滴(lipid droplets)中。目前有學(xué)者[34]認(rèn)為,癌癥的發(fā)生發(fā)展可能與細(xì)菌導(dǎo)致的免疫應(yīng)答、炎癥反應(yīng)和組織代謝改變有關(guān)。腫瘤組織炎癥性反應(yīng)是胰腺癌的特征性表現(xiàn)之一。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),胰腺癌細(xì)胞上的T2R38可識(shí)別革蘭陰性細(xì)菌密度感應(yīng)分子AHL-12,導(dǎo)致絲裂原活化蛋白激酶p38(mitogen activated protein kinase p38,MAPKp38)和胞外信號(hào)調(diào)節(jié)激酶(extracellular signal-regulated kinase,ERK)磷酸化,上調(diào)活化T細(xì)胞核因子c1(nuclear factor of activated T cells cytplasmic 1,NFATc1)以及多重耐藥蛋白1(multidrug resistance protein 1,MRP1)的表達(dá)。因此,T2R38可能參與介導(dǎo)了腫瘤與細(xì)菌的交互作用,與胰腺癌的發(fā)生發(fā)展和預(yù)后密切相關(guān)[35]。
2.2 苦味受體T2R38基因多態(tài)性與細(xì)菌感染性疾病
苦味受體T2R38基因多態(tài)性不僅導(dǎo)致個(gè)體對(duì)特定苦味劑感知能力的差異,還可影響其引起的免疫應(yīng)答和抗菌效應(yīng)。在人上呼吸道纖毛上皮細(xì)胞中,T2R38 PAV/PAV基因型細(xì)胞感知銅綠假單胞菌AHLs刺激,釋放一氧化氮?dú)缂?xì)菌和增加纖毛清除率的能力明顯強(qiáng)于PAV/AVI或AVI/AVI基因型細(xì)胞[28];AVI/AVI基因型慢性鼻竇炎患者鼻腔分離細(xì)菌形成生物膜的能力更強(qiáng)[36]。
Adappa等[37]通過(guò)對(duì)28名藥物治療失敗需行鼻內(nèi)鏡手術(shù)干預(yù)的慢性鼻竇炎患者進(jìn)行基因分析后發(fā)現(xiàn),僅1名患者T2R38基因型為PAV/PAV,且術(shù)后不需要抗生素輔助治療,與報(bào)道的歐洲人群中PAV/PAV出現(xiàn)率(20%[15])有統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)差異;而基因型為PAV/AVI或AVI/AVI的患者分別有14名和13名,其中33%的PAV/AVI患者和44%的AVI/AVI患者術(shù)后需要至少一個(gè)療程的抗生素治療。另一項(xiàng)臨床研究[38]顯示,在70名接受鼻竇內(nèi)窺鏡手術(shù)的患者中,T2R38常見的基因型PAV/PAV、PAV/AVI和AVI/AVI所占比例分別為8.5%、54%和37%,而同一地區(qū)健康人群上述基因型所占比例分別為20%、51%和29%,二者間有統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)差異;在同一批患者中,是否存在哮喘、呼吸道過(guò)敏反應(yīng)或息肉等慢性難治性鼻竇炎危險(xiǎn)因素與T2R38基因型無(wú)關(guān),表明T2R38基因多態(tài)性是慢性鼻竇炎遷延不愈的一個(gè)獨(dú)立的危險(xiǎn)因素。以上研究結(jié)果均說(shuō)明宿主T2R38基因多態(tài)性影響上呼吸道抗細(xì)菌感染的固有免疫反應(yīng),在難治性慢性鼻竇炎的易患性、疾病發(fā)生發(fā)展和預(yù)后中扮演重要角色。人群中PTC或PROP味盲者(AVI/AVI)或雜合子(PAV/AVI)比味覺靈敏者(PAV/PAV)更易受到銅綠假單胞菌等革蘭陰性菌的感染,對(duì)呼吸道細(xì)菌性感染性疾病有更高的易患性[28],且患病后治療難度更高、預(yù)后更差[37,39]。
口腔中的T2R38基因多態(tài)性與口腔細(xì)菌引起的固有免疫應(yīng)答水平密切相關(guān)。基因型為PAV/PAV的人牙齦上皮細(xì)胞經(jīng)變異鏈球菌刺激后,T2R38表達(dá)量較AVI/AVI型細(xì)胞顯著上調(diào),分泌白細(xì)胞介素(interleukin,IL)-2α的水平亦顯著高于AVI/AVI或PAV/AVI型細(xì)胞;沉默該細(xì)胞T2R38表達(dá)則導(dǎo)致其分泌人β防御素-2(human β-defensin-2,hBD-2)和IL-2α的水平顯著降低。牙齦卟啉單胞菌或具核梭桿菌的刺激可致T2R38表達(dá)量在AVI/AVI型牙齦上皮細(xì)胞中增加4.4倍,而在PAV/PAV純合子或PAV/AVI雜合子細(xì)胞中無(wú)顯著變化;牙齦上皮細(xì)胞被上述牙周致病菌激活后,T2R38對(duì)hBD-2及IL-2α、IL-8分泌的調(diào)控作用與其基因型相關(guān)[40]。臨床調(diào)查[41]顯示,hT2R38的PAV單體型與乳牙列患齲風(fēng)險(xiǎn)呈負(fù)相關(guān),AVI單體型則增加乳牙列患齲風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。以上研究結(jié)果提示,味覺受體T2R38的基因多態(tài)性可通過(guò)調(diào)控口腔抵御細(xì)菌入侵的免疫應(yīng)答,影響口腔感染性疾病,如齲病或牙周病的發(fā)生發(fā)展及預(yù)后。
2.3 甜味受體對(duì)細(xì)菌的調(diào)控作用
甜味受體可通過(guò)調(diào)控苦味受體功能而間接影響細(xì)菌定植??辔秳┑啬卿@可激活人鼻竇上皮細(xì)胞上除T2R38以外的多種苦味受體,引起由PLCβ2/IP3R信號(hào)通路介導(dǎo)的胞內(nèi)Ca2+釋放,促進(jìn)抗菌肽(antimicrobial peptides,AMPs)的分泌,如具有廣譜殺菌作用的β-防御素,殺滅銅綠假單胞菌、耐甲氧西林金黃色葡萄球菌和克雷伯肺炎桿菌等。與T2R38表達(dá)于纖毛上皮細(xì)胞不同,地那銨受體表達(dá)于人類鼻竇中一類無(wú)纖毛、單極性的孤立化學(xué)感受細(xì)胞。該類細(xì)胞可以同時(shí)表達(dá)苦味受體T2Rs和甜味受體T1R2/3,T1R2/3激活可抑制T2Rs介導(dǎo)的胞內(nèi)Ca2+濃度升高和抗菌肽分泌,可能與甜味受體激活后cAMP濃度升高有關(guān)[7,29]。胞內(nèi)cAMP濃度升高可活化PKA,抑制PLCβ2/IP3R信號(hào)通路[25],進(jìn)而抑制苦味劑引起的一系列信號(hào)傳導(dǎo)級(jí)聯(lián)反應(yīng)。T2Rs與T1R2/3交互作用,調(diào)控抗菌肽分泌是人類上呼吸道細(xì)胞的特有現(xiàn)象。在健康狀態(tài)下,人鼻竇黏膜表面存在適量葡萄糖,通過(guò)T1R2/3信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo),調(diào)控T2Rs分泌抗菌肽的量維持在較低水平;當(dāng)上呼吸道急性感染時(shí),鼻竇黏膜表面定植細(xì)菌過(guò)度生長(zhǎng)并消耗大量葡萄糖,進(jìn)而解除T1R2/3信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)對(duì)T2Rs通路的抑制,細(xì)胞分泌大量抗菌肽,抵抗細(xì)菌感染。呼吸道在慢性感染狀態(tài)下,炎癥反應(yīng)和呼吸道上皮損傷可導(dǎo)致葡萄糖大量釋放,T1R2/3信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)異常激活,拮抗T2Rs介導(dǎo)的抗菌肽分泌,有利于病原微生物定植,加速疾病的發(fā)展,進(jìn)一步引起炎癥反應(yīng)、組織損傷和葡萄糖釋放,最終導(dǎo)致慢性上呼吸道感染性疾病遷延不愈[29]。糖尿病患者呼吸道黏液中葡萄糖含量高于健康人群,呼吸道上皮細(xì)胞中T1R2/3對(duì)T2Rs的拮抗作用可能與糖尿病患者呼吸道感染性疾病的易患性有關(guān)[42]。
2.4 鮮味受體對(duì)寄生蟲感染的調(diào)控作用
鮮味受體T1R1/3及α-味導(dǎo)素、PLCβ2、TRPM5可表達(dá)于哺乳動(dòng)物腸道黏膜的tuft細(xì)胞中[43],該細(xì)胞在機(jī)體抗寄生蟲感染的過(guò)程中發(fā)揮了重要作用。Tuft細(xì)胞可感知巴西鉤蟲等寄生蟲感染,分泌免疫因子IL-25,激活Ⅱ型先天性淋巴細(xì)胞并分泌IL-13,促進(jìn)腸道隱窩細(xì)胞分化為杯狀細(xì)胞、tuft細(xì)胞等,一方面啟動(dòng)Ⅱ型免疫應(yīng)答反應(yīng),另一方面新分化的tuft細(xì)胞可正反饋調(diào)節(jié)上述進(jìn)程[44]。α-味導(dǎo)素或TRPM5缺陷小鼠被寄生蟲感染后,tuft細(xì)胞、杯狀細(xì)胞、Ⅱ型先天性淋巴細(xì)胞的數(shù)量及IL-25的分泌量較正常小鼠明顯降低,寄生蟲定植量顯著增加,提示tuft細(xì)胞可能通過(guò)細(xì)胞中的味覺感受系統(tǒng)識(shí)別寄生蟲,與α-味導(dǎo)素或TRPM5相關(guān)的味覺信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路可調(diào)控tuft細(xì)胞對(duì)寄生蟲的識(shí)別,進(jìn)而影響機(jī)體抗寄生蟲感染的Ⅱ型免疫反應(yīng)[30]。
下丘腦神經(jīng)元細(xì)胞表達(dá)甜味受體,發(fā)揮感知葡萄糖的功能[45];此外,大鼠大腦神經(jīng)元細(xì)胞可表達(dá)部分苦味受體,可能與分泌調(diào)控食物吸收等重要生理活動(dòng)的調(diào)節(jié)蛋白有關(guān)[46]。胃腸道中細(xì)胞表達(dá)甜味、苦味和鮮味受體,調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)體營(yíng)養(yǎng)的攝取及能量和葡萄糖的穩(wěn)態(tài)[47]。胰腺β細(xì)胞可表達(dá)甜味受體,與葡萄糖的感知和胰島素的分泌相關(guān)[48]。人類和小鼠膀胱上皮細(xì)胞表達(dá)甜味受體被人工甜味劑激活后,可以增強(qiáng)小鼠膀胱平滑肌的收縮[49]??辔逗吞鹞妒荏w均可在睪丸中表達(dá),與精子的形成有關(guān),人類成熟精子中可檢測(cè)出味導(dǎo)素和鮮味受體的表達(dá),參與調(diào)控精子的生理活動(dòng)[4]。人類胎盤的羊膜上皮、滋養(yǎng)層細(xì)胞和蛻膜細(xì)胞上均存在T2R38表達(dá),敵芬尼朵(diphenidol)和PTC等T2R38配體作用于胎盤細(xì)胞后可引起Ca2+濃度變化,提示T2R38在胎盤中有保護(hù)胚胎、調(diào)節(jié)內(nèi)分泌等作用[50]。
味覺受體對(duì)食物及外環(huán)境各種刺激的感知在機(jī)體趨利避害、確保種群生存繁衍過(guò)程中具有重要意義。隨著近年來(lái)對(duì)味覺受體研究的深入,越來(lái)越多的證據(jù)表明,味覺受體的功能不僅局限于味覺感知。分布于全身各處的化學(xué)感官細(xì)胞可通過(guò)表面味覺受體,參與機(jī)體免疫應(yīng)答、維持機(jī)體內(nèi)環(huán)境穩(wěn)態(tài)等一系列重要生理功能。味蕾是味覺受體的主要分布區(qū)域,但目前對(duì)味蕾外味覺受體在口腔的空間分布情況及其受體亞型尚不清楚,與口腔微生物組交互作用的分子機(jī)制亟待進(jìn)一步研究證實(shí)??谇晃独偻馕队X受體識(shí)別口腔微生物組的分子基礎(chǔ)及其下游信號(hào)級(jí)聯(lián)反應(yīng)如何啟動(dòng)口腔黏膜細(xì)胞對(duì)細(xì)菌應(yīng)答的具體分子機(jī)制仍有待進(jìn)一步研究;口腔味蕾外味覺受體對(duì)口腔微生態(tài)平衡的調(diào)控作用是否足以對(duì)口腔細(xì)菌感染性疾病的發(fā)生發(fā)展造成顯著影響還有待動(dòng)物模型和臨床研究進(jìn)一步證實(shí)。鑒于味覺檢測(cè)具有椅旁快速、便捷、無(wú)創(chuàng)等特點(diǎn),深入研究口腔味覺受體參與調(diào)控口腔微生態(tài)平衡的作用與分子機(jī)制,有望為實(shí)現(xiàn)椅旁味覺測(cè)試輔助口腔感染性疾病易患人群的篩查與個(gè)體化治療提供新的思路與途徑。
[1] Chandrashekar J, Hoon MA, Ryba NJP, et al. The receptors and cells for mammalian taste[J]. Nature, 2006, 444(7117):288-294.
[2] Lee RJ, Cohen NA. Taste receptors in innate immunity[J].Cell Mol Life Sci, 2015, 72(2):217-236.
[3] Laffitte A, Neiers F, Briand L. Functional roles of the sweet taste receptor in oral and extraoral tissues[J]. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care, 2014,17(4):379-385.
[4] Li F. Taste perception: from the tongue to the testis[J]. Mol Hum Reprod, 2013, 19(6):349-360.
[5] Adler E, Hoon MA, Mueller KL, et al. A novel family of mammalian taste receptors[J]. Cell, 2000, 100(6):693-702.
[6] Barlow LA. Progress and renewal in gustation: new insights into taste bud development[J]. Development, 2015, 142(21):3620-3629.
[7] Iwata S, Yoshida R, Ninomiya Y. Taste transductions in taste receptor cells: basic tastes and moreover[J]. Curr Pharm Des, 2014, 20(16):2684-2692.
[8] Ye W, Chang RB, Bushman JD, et al. The K+channel KIR2.1 functions in tandem with proton influx to mediate sour taste transduction[J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2016, 113(2):E229-E238.
[9] Chandrashekar J, Mueller KL, Hoon MA, et al. T2Rs function as bitter taste receptors[J]. Cell, 2000, 100(6):703-711.
[10] Shi P, Zhang J, Yang H, et al. Adaptive diversification of bitter taste receptor genes in mammalian evolution[J]. Mol Biol Evol, 2003, 20(5):805-814.
[11] Shi P, Zhang J. Contrasting modes of evolution between vertebrate sweet/umami receptor genes and bitter receptor genes[J]. Mol Biol Evol, 2006, 23(2):292-300.
[12] Jaggupilli A, Howard R, Upadhyaya JD, et al. Bitter taste receptors: novel insights into the biochemistry and pharmacology[J]. Int J Biochem Cell Biol, 2016, 77(Pt B):184-196.
[13] Pydi SP, Sobotkiewicz T, Billakanti R, et al. Amino acid derivatives as bitter taste receptor (T2R) blockers[J]. J Biol Chem, 2014, 289(36):25054-25066.
[14] Bufe B, Breslin PA, Kuhn C, et al. The molecular basis of individual differences in phenylthiocarbamide and propylthiouracil bitterness perception[J]. Curr Biol, 2005, 15(4):322-327.
[15] Kim UK, Jorgenson E, Coon H, et al. Positional cloning of the human quantitative trait locus underlying taste sensitivity to phenylthiocarbamide[J]. Science, 2003, 299(5610):1221-1225.
[16] Tan J, Abrol R, Trzaskowski B, et al. 3D structure prediction of TAS2R38 bitter receptors bound to agonists phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP)[J].J Chem Inf Model, 2012, 52(7):1875-1885.
[17] Guo SW, Reed DR. The genetics of phenylthiocarbamide perception[J]. Ann Hum Biol, 2001, 28(2):111-142.
[18] Zhao GQ, Zhang Y, Hoon MA, et al. The receptors for mammalian sweet and umami taste[J]. Cell, 2003, 115(3):255-266.
[19] Sukumaran SK, Yee KK, Iwata S, et al. Taste cell-expressed α-glucosidase enzymes contribute to gustatory responses to disaccharides[J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2016, 113(21):6035-6040.
[20] Yee KK, Sukumaran SK, Kotha R, et al. Glucose transporters and ATP-gated K+(KATP) metabolic sensors are present in type 1 taste receptor 3 (T1r3)-expressing taste cells[J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2011, 108(13):5431-5436.
[21] Treesukosol Y, Smith KR, Spector AC. The functional role of the T1R family of receptors in sweet taste and feeding[J]. Physiol Behav, 2011, 105(1):14-26.
[22] Pal Choudhuri S, Delay RJ, Delay ER. L-Amino acids elicit diverse response patterns in taste sensory cells: a role for multiple receptors[J]. PloS One, 2015, 10(6):e0130088.
[23] Temussi PA. Sweet, bitter and umami receptors: a complex relationship[J]. Trends Biochem Sci, 2009, 34(6):296-302.
[24] Chaudhari N, Roper SD. The cell biology of taste[J]. J Cell Biol, 2010, 190(3):285-296.
[25] Douglas JE, Saunders CJ, Reed DR, et al. A role for airway taste receptor modulation in the treatment of upper respiratory infections[J]. Expert Rev Respir Med, 2016, 10(2):157-170.
[26] Roper SD. Taste buds as peripheral chemosensory processors[J]. Semin Cell Dev Biol, 2013, 24(1):71-79.
[27] Tizzano M, Gulbransen BD, Vandenbeuch A, et al. Nasal chemosensory cells use bitter taste signaling to detect irritants and bacterial signals[J]. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,2010, 107(7):3210-3215.
[28] Lee RJ, Xiong G, Kofonow JM, et al. T2R38 taste receptor polymorphisms underlie susceptibility to upper respiratory infection[J]. J Clin Invest, 2012, 122(11):4145-4159.
[29] Lee RJ, Kofonow JM, Rosen PL, et al. Bitter and sweet taste receptors regulate human upper respiratory innate immunity[J]. J Clin Invest, 2014, 124(3):1393-1405.
[30] Howitt MR, Lavoie S, Michaud M, et al. Tuft cells, tastechemosensory cells, orchestrate parasite type 2 immunity in the gut[J]. Science, 2016, 351(6279):1329-1333.
[31] Ricciardolo FL. Multiple roles of nitric oxide in the airways[J]. Thorax, 2003, 58(2):175-182.
[32] Storm WL, Johnson JA, Worley BV, et al. Dual action antimicrobial surfaces via combined nitric oxide and silver release[J]. J Biomed Mater Res A, 2015, 103(6):1974-1984.
[33] Maurer S, Wabnitz GH, Kahle NA, et al. Tasting Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms: human neutrophils express the bitter receptor T2R38 as sensor for the quorum sensing molecule N-(3-oxododecanoyl)-l-homoserine lactone[J]. Front Immunol, 2015, 6:369.
[34] Schwabe RF, Jobin C. The microbiome and cancer[J]. Nat Rev Cancer, 2013, 13(11):800-812.
[35] Gaida MM, Mayer C, Dapunt U, et al. Expression of the bitter receptor T2R38 in pancreatic cancer: localization in lipid droplets and activation by a bacteria-derived quorumsensing molecule[J]. Oncotarget, 2016, 7(11):12623-12632.
[36] Adappa ND, Truesdale CM, Workman AD, et al. Correlation of T2R38 taste phenotype and in vitro biofilm formation from nonpolypoid chronic rhinosinusitis patients[J].Int Forum Allergy Rhiol, 2016, 6(8):783-791.
[37] Adappa ND, Howland TJ, Palmer JN, et al. Genetics of the taste receptor T2R38 correlates with chronic rhinosinusitis necessitating surgical intervention[J]. Int Forum Allergy Rhiol, 2013, 3(3):184-187.
[38] Adappa ND, Zhang Z, Palmer JN, et al. The bitter taste receptor T2R38 is an independent risk factor for chronic rhinosinusitis requiring sinus surgery[J]. Int Forum Allergy Rhiol, 2014, 4(1):3-7.
[39] Adappa ND, Farquhar D, Palmer JN, et al. TAS2R38 genotype predicts surgical outcome in nonpolypoid chronic rhinosinusitis[J]. Int Forum Allergy Rhiol, 2016, 6(1):25-33.
[40] Gil S, Coldwell S, Drury JL, et al. Genotype-specific regulation of oral innate immunity by T2R38 taste receptor[J].Mol Immunol, 2015, 68(2 Pt C):663-670.
[41] Wendell S, Wang X, Brown M, et al. Taste genes associated with dental caries[J]. J Dent Res, 2010, 89(11):1198-1202.
[42] Pezzulo AA, Gutierrez J, Duschner KS, et al. Glucose depletion in the airway surface liquid is essential for sterility of the airways[J]. PloS One, 2011, 6(1):e16166.
[43] Gerbe F, Legraverend C, Jay P. The intestinal epithelium tuft cells: specification and function[J]. Cell Mol Life Sci,2012, 69(17):2907-2917.
[44] von Moltke J, Ji M, Liang HE, et al. Tuft-cell-derived IL-25 regulates an intestinal ILC2-epithelial response circuit[J].Nature, 2016, 529(7585):221-225.
[45] Benford H, Bolborea M, Pollatzek E, et al. A sweet taste receptor-dependent mechanism of glucosensing in hypothalamic tanycytes[J]. Glia, 2017, 65(5):773-789.
[46] Singh N, Vrontakis M, Parkinson F, et al. Functional bitter taste receptors are expressed in brain cells[J]. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 2011, 406(1):146-151.
[47] Depoortere I. Taste receptors of the gut: emerging roles in health and disease[J]. Gut, 2014, 63(1):179-190.
[48] Henquin JC. Do pancreatic β cells “taste” nutrients to secrete insulin[J]. Sci Signal, 2012, 5(239):pe36.
[49] Elliott RA, Kapoor S, Tincello DG. Expression and distribution of the sweet taste receptor isoforms T1R2 and T1R3 in human and rat bladders[J]. J Urol, 2011, 186(6):2455-2462.
[50] Wolfle U, Elsholz FA, Kersten A, et al. Expression and functional activity of the human bitter taste receptor TAS2R38 in human placental tissues and JEG-3 cells[J]. Molecules,2016, 21(3):306.
(本文編輯 吳愛華)
Taste signal transduction and the role of taste receptors in the regulation of microbial infection
Lu Yangyu, Xi Ranhui,Zheng Xin, He Jinzhi, Xu Xin.
(State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases,Dept. of Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041,China)
Supported by: National Natural Science Foundation of China (81670978, 81600874); Research Fund of Outstanding Young Scholars of Sichuan University (2015SCU04A16). Correspondence: Xu Xin, E-mail: xin.xu@scu.edu.cn.
Tastereceptorsguideindividualstoconsumenutrientswhileavoidingpotentiallynoxioussubstances.Interestingly,recentstudieshaveshownthattastereceptorsarealsoexpressedbeyondthetastebuds,includingbrain,respiratorysystem,anddigestivesystem,etc.Theseextragustatorytastereceptorsplayimportantrolesinmicrobialinfection,nutrientuptakeandhosthomeostasis.Manyextragustatorytastereceptorshavebeenproposedtosensemicroorganismsandregulatehostinnatedefense.Moreimportantly,polymorphismsofgenesencodingtastereceptor,particularlybittertastereceptor,arelinkedtodifferentinnatedefensiveresponses.Thisreviewintroducesthemolecularbasisoftastesignaltransduction,andtheroleoftastereceptorsintheregulationofinnateimmunityduringmicrobialinfectionwerefurtherdiscussedindetail.
tastereceptor; microorganisms; chemosensorycells; innateimmunity
R78
A
10.7518/hxkq.2017.05.020
2017-03-17;
2017-06-01
國(guó)家自然科學(xué)基金(81670978,81600874);四川大學(xué)優(yōu)秀青年學(xué)者科研基金(2015SCU04A16)
陸洋宇,碩士,E-mail:luyyendo@126.com
徐欣,副教授,博士,E-mail:xin.xu@scu.edu.cn