陳小紅,王云鵬,陳梅珠
糖尿病視網(wǎng)膜病變(diabetic retinopathy,DR)是糖尿病常見(jiàn)的微血管并發(fā)癥之一。在全球,DR影響著大約150萬(wàn)人,世界衛(wèi)生組織統(tǒng)計(jì)影響人數(shù)在2025年將翻倍[1]。DR 分 非 增 殖 性 DR、增 殖 性 DR(proliferative diabetic retinopathy,PDR)。PDR在美國(guó)是20~74歲人群最主要的新發(fā)致盲病因之一。糖尿病20a后,約50%的1型糖尿病、5% ~10%的非胰島素依賴性2型糖尿病、30%的胰島素依賴性2型糖尿病并發(fā)PDR。在WESDR報(bào)道中,有3.6%的1型糖尿病和1.6%的2型糖尿病患者是盲人[2]。本文就血管內(nèi)皮生長(zhǎng)因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)和色素上皮衍生因子(pigment epithelium-derived factor,PEDF)在PDR中的研究現(xiàn)狀和進(jìn)展綜述如下。
VEGF是一種48kDa大小的同型二聚體糖蛋白,系由胎盤(pán)生長(zhǎng)因子(placenta growth factor,PLGF)、VEGF -A,VEGF-B,VEGF-C和 VEGF-D 組成的分子家族[1]。PLGF功能尚未完全明確,但在PDR、脈絡(luò)膜新生血管疾病發(fā)展中起關(guān)鍵作用[3,4]。它在新生血管生成、增加血管通透性方面,與VEGF-A起協(xié)同作用[5]。VEGF-B主要分布于血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞,促進(jìn)內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞增殖,可誘導(dǎo)冠狀血管生長(zhǎng)和心臟肥大,使心臟免受缺血性損傷[6]。VEGF-C和VEGF-D促進(jìn)淋巴管生成[7]。VEGF-A又稱血管通透性因子,是DR發(fā)生發(fā)展中的關(guān)鍵者[8]。人類VEGF-A基因通過(guò)選擇性剪切至少可產(chǎn)生6種主要異構(gòu)體(VEGF121,145,165,183,189,206)[9]和 8 種小型異構(gòu)體。其中VEGF165的表達(dá)最豐富,是血管生成和通透性增加的主要活化因子[1,7]。
VEGF受體家族(VEGF receptors,VEGFR)包括VEGFR -1(flt-1),VEGFR -2(flk-1),VEGFR -3(flt-4)[7]。VEGFR-1分布于血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞、周細(xì)胞;VEGFR-2幾乎僅存于血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞,是VEGF發(fā)揮功能的主要受體;VEGFR-3在胚胎時(shí)期表達(dá)于血管和淋巴內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞,在成人僅表達(dá)淋巴細(xì)胞[10]。
VEGF是一種旁分泌和自分泌生長(zhǎng)因子,與受體結(jié)合后產(chǎn)生相應(yīng)生物學(xué)效應(yīng):促進(jìn)內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞遷移、增殖;提高血管通透性等[11]。在眼內(nèi),色素上皮細(xì)胞(retinal pigment epithelium,RPE)、神經(jīng)元、神經(jīng)膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞、睫狀上皮細(xì)胞、Müller細(xì)胞、內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞均有 VEGF表達(dá)[1]。周細(xì)胞缺失、內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞及血流動(dòng)力學(xué)異常是PDR的基本病理改變,造成血管通透性增加、黃斑水腫,進(jìn)一步出現(xiàn)出血、滲出和血管閉塞等一系列變化。缺氧刺激低氧誘導(dǎo)因子(hypoxia inducible factor,HIF)轉(zhuǎn)錄增加,并進(jìn)一步增加 VEGF表達(dá)[3]。VEGF的生物學(xué)效應(yīng)在 PDR發(fā)生發(fā)展中起重要作用。
PEDF于1991年在人類胎兒RPE細(xì)胞的條件培養(yǎng)液中純化分離出來(lái),系一種分子質(zhì)量為50kDa的分泌型蛋白,是絲氨酸蛋白酶抑制劑家族成員[12,13]。PEDF在人體分布于大腦、眼、脊髓、肝臟、血液、肺臟[13]。在眼內(nèi)PEDF主要由RPE細(xì)胞和Müller膠質(zhì)細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生[14],旁分泌至光感受器間質(zhì),對(duì)視網(wǎng)膜的分化起重要作用。
糖尿病時(shí),機(jī)體處于氧化應(yīng)激,高血糖所致一系列糖代謝異常使視網(wǎng)膜內(nèi)活性氧增加,同時(shí)抗氧化劑水平降低,加重內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞核周細(xì)胞損傷;體內(nèi)活性氧增加,亦可誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞凋亡。PEDF作為眼內(nèi)保護(hù)因子之一,在PDR中不僅能抗新生血管,更有對(duì)神經(jīng)的營(yíng)養(yǎng)和保護(hù)功能[14,15]。PEDF通過(guò)啟動(dòng)的Fas-FasL所介導(dǎo)的凋亡作用與誘導(dǎo)劑所產(chǎn)生的生存信號(hào)之間的強(qiáng)弱,決定其是增殖形成新血管還是發(fā)生凋亡。PEDF通過(guò)Fas-FasL受體區(qū)別新生血管的內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞和正常血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞,使其在抑制新生血管形成的同時(shí),不對(duì)已構(gòu)建的視網(wǎng)膜血管產(chǎn)生明顯的損害。同時(shí)PEDF能削弱VEGF的表達(dá),從根源上阻斷新生血管生成[15]。此外,在PDR體內(nèi)發(fā)生氧化應(yīng)激損害時(shí),PEDF能通過(guò)上調(diào) Bcl-2,阻止神經(jīng)元細(xì)胞凋亡,從而保護(hù)神經(jīng)[15,16]。
多項(xiàng)研究證實(shí),VEGF是促進(jìn)新生血管生成和滲漏的重要因素,因此抑制VEGF成為抗新生血管的治療熱點(diǎn)。Pegaptanib(Macugen)系一種抗VEGF165適體,于2004-12成為第一個(gè)獲得FDA批準(zhǔn)的治療老年性黃斑變性(age-related macular degeneration,AMD)的 VEGF抑制劑。它能特異性與VEGF165結(jié)合,抑制其生物活性,阻礙其與受體結(jié)合,從而抑制新生血管形成,在治療DR引起的黃斑水腫有一定的療效[17]。
Bevacizumab(Avastin)是由Genentech公司開(kāi)發(fā)的一種單克隆抗體,美國(guó)FDA于2004-02批準(zhǔn)其治療轉(zhuǎn)移性結(jié)直腸癌藥品、非小細(xì)胞型肺癌[18,19]。目前未批準(zhǔn)用于眼內(nèi)注射治療[16]。Avastin可以定向?qū)筕EGF-A所有亞型,間接阻斷VEGF-A和其受體的結(jié)合,從而抑制新生血管形成[1,19]。與 Pegaptanib 相比,它可結(jié)合所有 VEGF-A亞型,而非僅僅是VEGF165。
Ranibizumab(Lucentis)是2006年美國(guó)FDA批準(zhǔn)的、用來(lái)結(jié)合和抑制VEGF-A異構(gòu)體及其活性降解產(chǎn)物的人源化抗原結(jié)合片段[18,20,21]。它與 VEGF - A 亞型(即VEGF-110,VEGF -121,VEGF65)有較高親和力,通過(guò)抑制VEGF-A與其受體 VEGFR-1和VEGFR-2的結(jié)合,阻止新生血管形成。Bakri等[22]和 Gaudreault等[23]報(bào)道,Ranibizumab在兔子房水中的半衰期分別是2.84d和3.0d,玻璃體腔中半衰期是2.88d和2.9d。Gaudreault等[24]報(bào)道,在猴子體內(nèi),其房水中半衰期是2.54d,在玻璃體腔中半衰期是2.63d。
Aflibercept(眼用制劑VEGF Trap-Eye)分別于2011-11及2012-09被美國(guó)FDA批準(zhǔn)用于濕性年齡相關(guān)性黃斑變性和視網(wǎng)膜中央靜脈阻塞后視網(wǎng)膜水腫治療。它系一種高親和力的人源化的 VEGF受體融合蛋白,由VEGFR-1和VEGFR-2細(xì)胞外段與人IgG1Fc段融合蛋白[7]。它與 VEGF -A,VEGF-B,PLGF 結(jié)合,阻斷信號(hào)通路,抑制新生血管生成,降低血管通透性[25,26]。通過(guò)建立數(shù)學(xué)模型計(jì)算VEGF Trap-Eye在人眼內(nèi)半衰期為7.1d[4],而 Ranibizumab 和 Bevacizumab 的半衰期分別為3.2d 和5.6d[27]。與其他抗VEGF 藥物相比,VEGF Trap -Eye半衰期較長(zhǎng),有望減少注射頻次,減少不良反應(yīng)。
康柏西普(Conbercept)是于2013-12獲國(guó)家食品藥品監(jiān)督管理總局批準(zhǔn)的一種眼用注射液,系一種VEGF受體與人免疫球蛋白Fc段基因重組的融合蛋白,與VEGF有很高的親和力,競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性抑制 VEGF與受體結(jié)合,抑制血管新生形成[25]。與 VEGF Trap-Eye結(jié)構(gòu)相似,包含人IgG1Fc片段、VEGFR -1 和 VEGFR -2[28]。同時(shí)與 VEGF-A高親和力,也能結(jié)合 VEGF-B和 PLGF[29]。研究顯示玻璃體腔注射康柏西普是安全有效的[25]。目前數(shù)據(jù)有限,有必要在更大規(guī)模人群中通過(guò)更長(zhǎng)時(shí)期隨訪進(jìn)一步評(píng)估該藥的安全性。
4.1 PDR患者中VEGF和PEDF水平 PDR患者體內(nèi)VEGF表達(dá)水平高,而PEDF表達(dá)水平報(bào)道存在差異性。2002年 Ogata等[30]報(bào)道 PEDF在 PDR眼內(nèi)是低表達(dá);2009年Matsuyama等[18]報(bào)道了DR患者玻璃體腔中PEDF是低水平。2012年Mohan等[31]報(bào)道PDR患者(56眼)玻璃體 PEDF顯著低于非糖尿病(49眼)。而 2010年Matsuyama等[20]發(fā)現(xiàn) 11例11眼 PDR血清 PEDF含量(7.2μg/mL)高于對(duì)照組(30 例非糖尿病,3.9μg/mL)。Ogata等[32]和 Matsuyama等[33]同樣報(bào)道:糖尿病患者血清PEDF水平顯著高于對(duì)照組,合并有PDR的患者PEDF水平尤其高。PDR患者在血清高表達(dá)PEDF可能與肥胖有關(guān)[12]。
4.2 VEGF與 PEDF的相關(guān)性 2003年 Ohno-Matsui等[34]提出VEGF通過(guò)與VEGFR-1相結(jié)合,以自分泌的方式上調(diào)PEDF的表達(dá),從而維持兩者間平衡。2006年有學(xué)者[35]反對(duì)Ohno-Matsui等的觀點(diǎn),同時(shí)提出在PDR中VEGF能下調(diào)PEDF表達(dá)。
4.3 抗VEGF與VEGF和PEDF 玻璃體腔注射抗VEGF藥物,眼球局部和全身 VEGF 表達(dá)均有下調(diào)[18,20,21,36]。關(guān)于PEDF,Matsuyama等領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的研究小組報(bào)道了Bevacizumab玻璃體腔注射治療 PDR,房水(10例11眼)[18]、血清(11 例 11 眼)[20]中 PEDF 表達(dá)差異無(wú)統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)意義;2013年國(guó)內(nèi)有報(bào)道[37]PDR患者(13眼)玻璃體腔注射Avastin,視網(wǎng)膜增生膜中PEDF的表達(dá)率無(wú)明顯變化。而Ahn等[21]在濕性 AMD患者(17例)玻璃體腔注射Ranibizumab,房水PEDF水平呈下降趨勢(shì);2010年報(bào)道了PDR患者(7例7眼)玻璃體腔注射 Bevacizumab,房水PEDF 呈上升趨勢(shì)[36];Chan 等[38]報(bào)道了 AMD 患者(34眼)玻璃體腔注射Bevacizumab,房水PEDF表達(dá)上升。
糖尿病病程漫長(zhǎng),治療費(fèi)用高額,其并發(fā)癥嚴(yán)重影響患者生活質(zhì)量,其中PDR已成為一種嚴(yán)重影響人類健康的疾病,故而降低其致殘率、改善患者生活質(zhì)量仍是當(dāng)前醫(yī)學(xué)界亟待攻破的難題之一。現(xiàn)有臨床試驗(yàn)治療表明,VEGF和PEDF是PDR發(fā)生發(fā)展的關(guān)鍵性因子。但目前有限的數(shù)據(jù)并未完全闡明其相關(guān)病理生理作用機(jī)制,因此進(jìn)一步明確DR與細(xì)胞因子間的相關(guān)聯(lián)系,對(duì)指導(dǎo)臨床有效的治療有重大意義。
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