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骨關(guān)節(jié)炎軟骨下骨改變及其作用研究進(jìn)展

2015-03-21 00:44于德剛湯亭亭朱振安
國際骨科學(xué)雜志 2015年3期
關(guān)鍵詞:下骨骨板軟骨

于德剛 湯亭亭 朱振安

骨關(guān)節(jié)炎(OA)是一種最常見的骨關(guān)節(jié)疾病,其病理特征主要表現(xiàn)為進(jìn)展性關(guān)節(jié)軟骨丟失、軟骨下骨異常改變、輕度滑膜反應(yīng)及周圍軟組織異常。OA主要臨床癥狀為關(guān)節(jié)慢性疼痛,尤其是負(fù)重性疼痛。近年來大量研究顯示,OA軟骨下骨異常改變與關(guān)節(jié)疼痛及關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退變密切相關(guān)。

1 軟骨下骨解剖結(jié)構(gòu)與生物學(xué)功能

軟骨下骨一般指關(guān)節(jié)軟骨沉積線以下的軟骨下骨板和骨小梁結(jié)構(gòu),軟骨下骨板界于鈣化軟骨層與骨小梁之間,為皮質(zhì)化板層骨結(jié)構(gòu),類似于皮質(zhì)骨[1-3]。也有學(xué)者[1,4-6]將軟骨下骨定義為關(guān)節(jié)軟骨潮線以下的鈣化組織,將鈣化軟骨層歸于軟骨下骨板。鈣化軟骨、軟骨下骨板和骨小梁等結(jié)構(gòu)對OA發(fā)病的影響可能并不一致,但目前的影像學(xué)技術(shù)難以將它們在解剖學(xué)上區(qū)分,因此許多基于臨床影像學(xué)的研究實際上是對軟骨下鈣化組織的觀察。

生理狀態(tài)下,軟骨下骨可為關(guān)節(jié)軟骨提供力學(xué)支撐,并協(xié)同關(guān)節(jié)軟骨傳遞關(guān)節(jié)內(nèi)負(fù)荷,緩沖約30%的關(guān)節(jié)內(nèi)下傳應(yīng)力,維持關(guān)節(jié)匹配,防止關(guān)節(jié)內(nèi)應(yīng)力集中。此外,通過軟骨下骨板和鈣化軟骨層的終末血管可為關(guān)節(jié)軟骨提供營養(yǎng)支持[2,4,7]。

2 軟骨下骨在OA中的病理改變

影像學(xué)檢查中出現(xiàn)軟骨下骨硬化是OA主要特征表現(xiàn)之一。然而,目前研究表明軟骨下骨的表現(xiàn)隨著OA病情的進(jìn)展而呈動態(tài)改變,在病程早期主要表現(xiàn)為骨吸收,在晚期主要表現(xiàn)為骨形成。

OA早期或進(jìn)展階段,軟骨下骨骨改建活躍,軟骨下骨礦沉積率增加3~5倍[8-9],且骨改建位點也有增加,活躍的骨改建降低了軟骨下骨板厚度[10]。研究[11]顯示,犬前交叉韌帶切斷(ACLT)模型中OA早期軟骨下骨板厚度明顯變薄且孔隙增加。對小鼠膠原酶誘導(dǎo)模型[12-13]、大鼠 ACLT 模 型[14]或大鼠ACLT伴有內(nèi)側(cè)半月板切除模型[15]等觀察發(fā)現(xiàn),OA早期軟骨下骨板和(或)骨小梁明顯丟失。在 OA 早期患者中也觀察到類似現(xiàn)象[16-17]。研究[18]顯示,OA進(jìn)展階段患者骨吸收標(biāo)志物顯著升高,而OA非進(jìn)展階段患者骨吸收標(biāo)志物并不升高。在無臨床癥狀的早期OA中青年男性患者中骨吸收標(biāo)志物也升高[19]。

OA早期軟骨下骨骨改建增加的原因目前尚未明確,可能機制包括顯微損傷修復(fù)、促血管生成因子誘導(dǎo)的血管侵入及經(jīng)軟骨下微孔的骨與軟骨相互作用。關(guān)節(jié)內(nèi)持續(xù)負(fù)荷可導(dǎo)致軟骨下骨板產(chǎn)生顯微裂痕,從而啟動骨改建[20-21]。OA 骨軟骨中促血管生成因子如血管內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞生長因子(VEGF)等增加,軟骨下骨中血管生成增多,并侵入關(guān)節(jié)軟骨深層[22](骨改建增加與血管侵入相關(guān))。退變軟骨和軟骨下骨中轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子(TGF)-β、胰島素樣生長因子(IGF)-Ⅰ、白 細(xì)胞 介 素 (IL)-1、IL-6 和 前 列 腺 素(PG)E2蛋白水平升高,Wnt信號上調(diào),核因子-κB受體活化因子配體(RANKL)上調(diào)而骨保護(hù)素(OPG)下調(diào)等,可刺激骨改建[23-25]。正常關(guān)節(jié)軟骨下骨板中存在微孔隙,可提供軟骨與軟骨下骨相互作用[7];OA 發(fā)生時,軟骨下骨板孔隙增加[13]。研究[26]報道,應(yīng)用示蹤技術(shù)發(fā)現(xiàn)大鼠軟骨下骨與關(guān)節(jié)軟骨相互作用。研究[27-28]證實,在小鼠模型中軟骨損傷和血管侵入可增加孔隙大小和數(shù)量,允許骨與軟骨之間通過小分子彌散相互作用。

OA晚期骨轉(zhuǎn)換減少,骨吸收減弱,而骨形成相對增加,影像學(xué)上表現(xiàn)為軟骨下骨板骨質(zhì)硬化[29]。正常骨吸收與骨形成之間的偶聯(lián)機制在OA晚期失去平衡,傾向骨形成[30]。研究[31-34]顯示,與正?;颊呦啾?,OA晚期患者軟骨下骨密度增加、骨體積增加、膠原含量增加,但鈣與膠原比例降低、骨礦化度降低、力學(xué)強度降低。這是由于骨表觀密度與材料密度的差異所致,如果骨體積分?jǐn)?shù)增加,則表觀密度增加;如果骨礦化不足,則表觀密度降低,同時力學(xué)剛度下降。有研究[35]報道,OA晚期軟骨下骨體積分?jǐn)?shù)與骨礦化度相關(guān)為共適應(yīng)過程,即骨量增加以應(yīng)對骨礦化不足。

OA晚期軟骨下骨礦化度降低的機制目前尚不清楚,可能與成骨細(xì)胞分化調(diào)節(jié)因子有關(guān)[36]。研究表明,骨礦化度降低與軟骨下成骨細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生的TGF-β和 Dickkopf 家 族 蛋 白 (Dkk)-2 增 加 有關(guān)[37-38];Dkk-2是 Wnt信號的抑制劑,可抑制成骨細(xì)胞礦化[39]。另有研究[40]顯示,生理狀況下成骨細(xì)胞生成的Ⅰ型膠原為2個α1鏈和1個α2鏈構(gòu)成的異三聚體,而OA晚期成骨細(xì)胞生成的Ⅰ型膠原為α1鏈同源三聚體,其可阻礙膠原正常礦化。

此外,隨著醫(yī)療技術(shù)的發(fā)展,MRI檢查用于診斷OA越來越廣泛。軟骨下骨骨髓損傷是OA在MRI圖像上的特征表現(xiàn)之一,在T2加權(quán)抑脂序列或短時間反轉(zhuǎn)恢復(fù)序列上表現(xiàn)為軟骨下邊界模糊的高信號區(qū)。在組織病理學(xué)上,軟骨下骨骨髓損傷的表現(xiàn)包括水腫、纖維化、骨壞死、骨小梁損傷和骨改建[41]。隨著OA的進(jìn)展,軟骨下骨骨髓損傷可表現(xiàn)為無明顯改變、繼續(xù)擴展、消退或新發(fā)[42-43]。經(jīng)MRI檢查結(jié)合顯微CT、定量CT檢查及雙能X線吸收法(DXA)分析發(fā)現(xiàn),OA晚期軟骨下骨骨髓損傷區(qū)域呈現(xiàn)骨質(zhì)硬化、骨體積分?jǐn)?shù)增加、骨密度降低[44-46]。

3 OA軟骨下骨與關(guān)節(jié)疼痛

關(guān)節(jié)慢性疼痛是OA的突出癥狀,疼痛產(chǎn)生原因及其治療方案一直是研究的難點。目前的研究提示軟骨下骨異常改變在OA關(guān)節(jié)疼痛產(chǎn)生及治療中起重要作用。

眾多基于臨床影像學(xué)檢查的研究提示,OA軟骨下骨異常改變與關(guān)節(jié)疼痛呈正相關(guān)。膝關(guān)節(jié)OA患者X線片上表現(xiàn)的結(jié)構(gòu)性改變(Kellgren-Lawrence分級)與關(guān)節(jié)疼痛顯著相關(guān)[47]。膝關(guān)節(jié)軟骨下骨磨損指受累平臺骨質(zhì)垂直丟失或壓縮,是軟骨下骨骨改建的表現(xiàn)[17],為膝關(guān)節(jié)OA患者常見的影像學(xué)表現(xiàn)。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),膝關(guān)節(jié)X線和MRI影像上表現(xiàn)出的軟骨下骨磨損與關(guān)節(jié)疼痛強烈相關(guān)[48-49];軟骨下骨裸露程度與關(guān)節(jié)疼痛程度呈正相關(guān)[50]。研究報道,在 MRI影像上可觀察到軟骨下骨骨髓損傷與膝關(guān)節(jié)疼痛相關(guān),甚至較滑膜炎更能預(yù)測關(guān)節(jié)疼痛[51-52],軟骨下骨骨髓損傷發(fā)生發(fā)展與疼痛加重相關(guān)[43]。

組織病理學(xué)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),正常關(guān)節(jié)軟骨下骨中分布著痛覺神經(jīng)纖維[53],在OA軟骨下骨板中血管神經(jīng)束增加,并侵入骨軟骨交界處直至關(guān)節(jié)軟骨深層[54-56]。有研究[57]發(fā)現(xiàn),OA 軟骨下骨中多種 炎癥介質(zhì)和痛覺遞質(zhì)增加。

針對軟骨下骨異常改變進(jìn)行治療的研究結(jié)果也支持軟骨下骨異常改變在關(guān)節(jié)疼痛產(chǎn)生中起重要作用。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),具有抑制骨吸收或促進(jìn)骨形成作用的骨保護(hù)類藥物如雙膦酸鹽類[58-59]、雷尼酸鍶[60-61]等,可通過改善或抑制軟骨下骨異常改變緩解OA患者關(guān)節(jié) 疼痛。小 鼠[62]、大鼠[63-65]和 犬[66]實 驗也發(fā)現(xiàn),骨保護(hù)類藥物可改善軟骨下骨結(jié)構(gòu),減輕關(guān)節(jié)疼痛,降低痛覺標(biāo)志物表達(dá)。

改善軟骨下骨而緩解關(guān)節(jié)疼痛的機制可能為:關(guān)節(jié)軟骨為無血管神經(jīng)組織[67],而軟骨下骨有豐富的血管神經(jīng)支配[68-69],OA 時軟骨下骨板血管神經(jīng)束增加并侵入骨軟骨界面[54-56];OA時軟骨下骨結(jié)構(gòu)與力學(xué)性能改變[6,34]及炎性致痛介質(zhì)增加,致使軟骨下骨中的痛覺感受器極易受到化學(xué)及力學(xué)刺激或損傷[70],進(jìn)而表現(xiàn)出OA疼痛癥狀,尤其是負(fù)重性疼痛[68]。因此,改善軟骨下骨結(jié)構(gòu)和力學(xué)性能有助于防止軟骨下痛覺感受器受到刺激或損傷,進(jìn)而緩解關(guān)節(jié)疼痛。此外,有研究[71]表明破骨細(xì)胞活性增強而引發(fā)的酸性環(huán)境也可導(dǎo)致痛覺產(chǎn)生。在OA發(fā)病過程中軟骨下骨骨轉(zhuǎn)換活躍、破骨細(xì)胞活性增強,因此抑制破骨細(xì)胞活性有助于減緩關(guān)節(jié)疼痛。

臨床上膝關(guān)節(jié)內(nèi)側(cè)或外側(cè)單間室OA疼痛癥狀常在施行脛骨高位截骨術(shù)后得到有效緩解,其原理在于通過調(diào)整膝關(guān)節(jié)力線平衡關(guān)節(jié)內(nèi)負(fù)荷,減少過高應(yīng)力對患側(cè)軟骨與軟骨下骨的過度刺激[72]。目前膝關(guān)節(jié)單髁或全髁置換術(shù)是治療OA關(guān)節(jié)疼痛的成熟術(shù)式,其機制在于切除病變軟骨與軟骨下骨,更換關(guān)節(jié)摩擦副[73],這進(jìn)一步表明OA軟骨下骨是關(guān)節(jié)疼痛產(chǎn)生的主要源點之一。

4 OA軟骨下骨與關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退變

對于OA軟骨下骨異常改變是關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退變的始動因素還是繼發(fā)性改變,目前尚存在異議。長期以來OA軟骨下骨異常改變被認(rèn)為是繼發(fā)于關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退變,許多實驗研究也支持這種觀點[74-75],但另一些實驗研究發(fā)現(xiàn)軟骨下骨異常改變可發(fā)生在軟骨退變前或與之同時發(fā)生[76-78]。但可以肯定的是,關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退變與軟骨下骨異常改變相關(guān),軟骨下骨出現(xiàn)異常可加速軟骨退變,而改善骨異常則可減緩軟骨退變。

研究[16]報道,采用骨閃爍成像法觀察到膝關(guān)節(jié)OA患者軟骨下骨骨轉(zhuǎn)換增強與病情快速進(jìn)展相關(guān)。多個基于MRI的影像學(xué)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),OA關(guān)節(jié)軟骨丟失與軟骨下骨骨髓損傷、磨損顯著相關(guān)[48,50,79-85];關(guān)節(jié)軟骨丟失與軟骨下骨吸收相關(guān)[35],軟骨下骨磨損區(qū)域關(guān)節(jié)軟骨丟失的風(fēng)險較正常區(qū)域增加7倍[86]。有研究報道,犬 ACLT 模型[11]、兔骨質(zhì)疏松關(guān)節(jié)失穩(wěn)模型中關(guān)節(jié)軟骨損傷與軟骨下骨板厚度降低相關(guān)。小鼠和兔實驗研究[8,87]顯示,軟骨退變可發(fā)生于骨板增厚區(qū)域。小鼠Ⅰ型膠原突變模型[88]、小鼠過表達(dá) RUNX2模型[89]、大鼠骨質(zhì)疏松模型[90]和兔模型[91-92]等研究證實,軟骨下骨骨轉(zhuǎn)換增加可促進(jìn)關(guān)節(jié)軟骨細(xì)胞與軟骨基質(zhì)丟失,增加關(guān)節(jié)軟骨損傷。

在小鼠ACLT模型中,抑制軟骨下骨中過高的TGF-β1可改善骨結(jié)構(gòu),減緩軟骨退變[93]。研究[94]報道,在基因修飾小鼠模型中骨特異性過表達(dá)成骨刺激因子EphB4可保護(hù)OA軟骨下骨,減輕關(guān)節(jié)軟骨損傷。多個動物實驗研究[14,22,62,90-91,95-96]發(fā)現(xiàn),骨保護(hù)類藥物如抗骨吸收藥物(雌激素類、降鈣素、雙膦酸鹽類和OPG等)、促骨形成藥物(特立帕肽等)、雙向調(diào)控藥物(雷尼酸鍶等)可通過抑制或改善軟骨下骨損傷減緩關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退變。此外,多個臨床實驗研究[61,97-100]結(jié)果也支持骨保護(hù)類藥物具有抑制軟骨Ⅱ型膠原降解、延緩軟骨退變的積極作用。

軟骨下骨異常改變影響關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退變的機制目前尚未明確,可能主要有以下兩個方面:在生物力學(xué)方面,關(guān)節(jié)軟骨含有大量水分,承受壓縮應(yīng)力性能強,但承受張應(yīng)力和剪切應(yīng)力性能弱,OA軟骨下骨密度和硬度的不均質(zhì)性及其彈性模量下降,致使關(guān)節(jié)軟骨承受到異常的張應(yīng)力和剪切應(yīng)力,易出現(xiàn)軟骨退變[101];在分子生物學(xué)方面,OA軟骨下骨板微孔隙增加,骨與軟骨之間作用加強[13,28],OA 軟骨下成骨細(xì)胞、破骨細(xì)胞、骨細(xì)胞可釋放多種蛋白酶、炎性介質(zhì)與生長因子,以促進(jìn)其上層軟骨細(xì)胞死亡和基質(zhì)降解[102-103]。

雖然越來越多的動物與臨床實驗證實通過骨保護(hù)類藥物可減輕關(guān)節(jié)疼痛、延緩關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退變,但也有臨床研究顯示其療效并不確切[58]。產(chǎn)生差異的主要原因可能在于軟骨下骨在OA病程中呈動態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)變,軟骨下骨異常改變并非總能被抑制或改善,干預(yù)效果依賴于治療始期[64]。

總之,OA軟骨下骨在病程中呈動態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)變,病程早期主要表現(xiàn)為骨吸收,晚期主要表現(xiàn)為骨形成。越來越多的研究證實,OA軟骨下骨異常改變促進(jìn)了關(guān)節(jié)疼痛和關(guān)節(jié)軟骨退變發(fā)生。相信隨著研究的深入,軟骨下骨靶向治療有希望成為新的治療手段。

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