劉 丹 李航宇(中國醫(yī)科大學(xué)附屬盛京醫(yī)院普通外科,沈陽110004)
Toll樣受體(Toll-like receptors,TLRs)是參與天然免疫應(yīng)答的一類重要分子,是機(jī)體抵抗病原微生物感染以及抗腫瘤的第一道防線。TLRs主要表達(dá)于免疫細(xì)胞表面,促進(jìn)炎癥因子的合成與釋放,引發(fā)炎癥反應(yīng)。近年來發(fā)現(xiàn)TLRs在腫瘤組織中亦有表達(dá),不同細(xì)胞表面表達(dá)的TLRs可能對腫瘤細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生不同的作用。在免疫細(xì)胞表面表達(dá)的TLRs可能介導(dǎo)腫瘤的免疫逃逸,同時(shí)也具有抗腫瘤作用,而腫瘤細(xì)胞表面表達(dá)的TLRs可能參與腫瘤增殖和侵襲等生物學(xué)行為的調(diào)控。本文就TLRs在腫瘤組織中的表達(dá)及其對腫瘤增殖、侵襲的影響作以簡要綜述。
1.1 TLRs的結(jié)構(gòu) TLRs一詞源于果蠅體內(nèi)的Toll受體,與人類的白介素1受體(Interleukin-1 receptor,IL-1R)有著相似的序列[1]。TLRs是一類天然免疫受體家族,其成員都是Ⅰ型跨膜蛋白,其包膜外區(qū)參與對病原相關(guān)分子模式(Pathogen-associated molecular patterns,PAMPs)的識(shí)別;胞內(nèi)段的髓樣分化因子88(Myeloid differentiation primary-response protein 88,MyD88)參與細(xì)胞內(nèi)的信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)過程[2,3]。
1.2 TLRs的分布 從1997年 Medzhitov[4]首次發(fā)現(xiàn)TLRs到現(xiàn)在,哺乳動(dòng)物中已被確認(rèn)的TLRs家族成員有13種,其中有11種表達(dá)于人類細(xì)胞[5],并廣泛分布于各種組織中。最初的研究認(rèn)為TLRs主要表達(dá)于免疫細(xì)胞表面,包括單核巨噬細(xì)胞、B淋巴細(xì)胞、T淋巴細(xì)胞、樹突狀細(xì)胞、NK細(xì)胞等[6]。近年來越來越多的研究證實(shí)在腫瘤組織中也有TLRs的表達(dá)(見表1),如在胃癌、結(jié)直腸癌、卵巢癌、宮頸癌、肺癌、前列腺癌、乳腺癌、黑色素瘤、肝癌、喉癌、胰腺癌、食管鱗狀細(xì)胞癌等腫瘤組織中均有不同亞型的TLRs表達(dá),這些TLRs通過不同的配體激活后對腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展起重要作用[7-27]。
1.3 TLRs的配體 TLRs是一種模式識(shí)別受體,可以識(shí)別特異性的配體分子(見表2)。TLRs主要通過胞膜外區(qū)結(jié)構(gòu)與特異性配體結(jié)合,向胞內(nèi)區(qū)傳遞信號發(fā)揮作用[28]。TLRs能夠識(shí)別不同的損傷相關(guān)分子模型(Damage-associated molecular patterns,DAMPs)和 PAMPs[29]。PAMPs 是由病原微生物產(chǎn)生的高度保守的分子產(chǎn)物,這些病原微生物包括革蘭氏陽性菌、革蘭氏陰性菌、真菌和病毒等。DAMPs是由受損或死亡的細(xì)胞釋放的內(nèi)源性分子。DAMPs和 PAMPs都能通過 TLRs 激活免疫反應(yīng)[30,31]。在腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展過程中,伴隨腫瘤組織的凋亡、壞死及胞吐(Exocytosis),也有大量的DAMPs和PAMPs釋放。腫瘤組織中的TLRs可以識(shí)別這些DAMPs和PAMPs,活化其下游的信號傳導(dǎo)通路,導(dǎo)致腫瘤局部炎癥反應(yīng),進(jìn)而對腫瘤組織的增殖、侵襲等生物學(xué)行為有重要的影響。
表1 不同腫瘤組織中TLRs的表達(dá)情況Tab.1 The expression of TLRs in different tumor tissues
表2 人類TLRs及其配體Tab.2 Human TLRs and their ligands
TLRs的生物學(xué)功能中最突出的就是促進(jìn)細(xì)胞因子的合成與釋放,引發(fā)炎癥反應(yīng)[32]。近年來研究表明由自身免疫疾病或者病原微生物感染引起的許多慢性炎癥是相應(yīng)惡性腫瘤的癌前病變,這些病原微生物包括幽門螺桿菌、人類乳頭瘤病毒、乙肝病毒、丙肝病毒、EB病毒等,它們感染機(jī)體促進(jìn)消化系統(tǒng)腫瘤、宮頸癌、肝癌、造血系統(tǒng)腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展[33,34]。慢性乙型肝炎肝組織上 TLR2和 TLR4的表達(dá)明顯升高[35],HBV的感染及炎癥促進(jìn)了HCC(Hepatocellular carcinoma,HCC)的發(fā)生發(fā)展[36],TLR2和TLR4信號途徑的持續(xù)激活被認(rèn)為是慢性炎癥持續(xù)存在進(jìn)而發(fā)展成為惡性腫瘤的重要因素[37]。
在腫瘤組織中,TLRs同時(shí)表達(dá)于免疫細(xì)胞表面和腫瘤細(xì)胞表面,TLRs在腫瘤組織中的作用表現(xiàn)非常復(fù)雜。TLRs的本質(zhì)就是感受細(xì)胞外信號刺激,將其傳導(dǎo)至細(xì)胞內(nèi),通過相應(yīng)的信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路作用于核轉(zhuǎn)錄因子,調(diào)控不同的效應(yīng)因子表達(dá)。因此,TLRs的作用具有刺激依賴性和細(xì)胞類型依賴性。也就是說,不同的細(xì)胞外刺激可以誘發(fā)TLRs的不同作用;相同的刺激作用于不同細(xì)胞表面的TLRs也會(huì)誘發(fā)其不同的作用。
免疫細(xì)胞表面的TLRs激活,一方面可以介導(dǎo)免疫反應(yīng),具有抗腫瘤效應(yīng)[20];另一方面可以通過產(chǎn)生免疫抑制因子和抑制凋亡促進(jìn)腫瘤的免疫逃逸。He等[38]發(fā)現(xiàn):在人類肺癌組織中,TLR4感受微環(huán)境中LPS刺激,誘導(dǎo)產(chǎn)生免疫抑制因子如IL-8、VEGF和 TGF-β,并誘導(dǎo)肺癌細(xì)胞對于 TNF-α 或TRAIL的凋亡抵抗,促進(jìn)人類肺癌細(xì)胞的免疫逃逸。
腫瘤細(xì)胞表面TLRs的激活不僅可以促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞的發(fā)生、增殖,還可以促進(jìn)腫瘤的浸潤、轉(zhuǎn)移、增強(qiáng)腫瘤的侵襲性。Chochi等[39]認(rèn)為,TLR4通過感受幽門螺桿菌的LPS刺激,激活信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑,促進(jìn)胃癌細(xì)胞增殖。Sheyhidi等[40]發(fā)現(xiàn)在食管鱗狀細(xì)胞癌組織中 TLR3、TLR4、TLR7、TLR9的表達(dá)增高,這些TLRs的過表達(dá)與腫瘤浸潤、轉(zhuǎn)移密切相關(guān)。腫瘤細(xì)胞表面TLRs的激活還可以產(chǎn)生抗凋亡蛋白[41,42],促進(jìn)凋亡抵抗,進(jìn)而促進(jìn)癌細(xì)胞增殖。在卵巢癌組織中,腫瘤細(xì)胞表面的TLR4感受LPS刺激,也能明顯促進(jìn)上皮卵巢癌細(xì)胞的增殖[43]。Hua[44]在前列腺癌中,Wang[45]在結(jié)腸癌中,均發(fā)現(xiàn)TLRs信號途徑的激活與腫瘤的轉(zhuǎn)移密切相關(guān)。張建軍等人[26]近年通過實(shí)驗(yàn)證實(shí):在胰腺癌組織中TLR2 mRNA、TLR4 mRNA 及 TLR2、TLR4蛋白的表達(dá)均顯著高于癌旁組織,并發(fā)現(xiàn),在有淋巴轉(zhuǎn)移、血管侵犯及臨床分期較晚的胰腺癌組織中,TLR2、TLR4 mRNA及蛋白表達(dá)均升高,這說明TLR2和TLR4信號通路的激活可能參與胰腺癌的發(fā)展過程并促進(jìn)腫瘤轉(zhuǎn)移,但對于TLR2、TLR4在胰腺癌進(jìn)展過程中的作用機(jī)制目前尚無研究報(bào)道。腫瘤細(xì)胞表達(dá)的TLRs對其增殖、侵襲的影響與腫瘤微環(huán)境的變化是密不可分的,TLRs只有感受腫瘤微環(huán)境的改變才能發(fā)揮促進(jìn)腫瘤增殖、侵襲等作用,例如Schmausser等[46]發(fā)現(xiàn)把經(jīng)TLR4配體體外活化的腫瘤細(xì)胞接種在正常小鼠皮下,腫瘤細(xì)胞不增殖。這說明TLRs只有感受腫瘤微環(huán)境中的信號刺激,才能被激活,進(jìn)而促進(jìn)腫瘤生長。另有研究表明TLRs的激活也有助于腫瘤逃避免疫監(jiān)視[33],與腫瘤的預(yù)后不良[47]、多藥耐藥[43]、癌性疼痛[48]等密切相關(guān)。
腫瘤細(xì)胞表面的TLRs激活后還可以損傷免疫細(xì)胞的抗腫瘤作用,從而改變炎癥反應(yīng)原本的防御性作用,促進(jìn)腫瘤的增殖和侵襲[49]。由此可見:相同的信號刺激作用于不同類型細(xì)胞表面的TLRs所產(chǎn)生的作用可能截然相反。盡管腫瘤細(xì)胞表面TLRs的激活促進(jìn)了腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展,但在某些腫瘤組織中也能夠抑制腫瘤的增殖。例如人類黑色素細(xì)胞能夠表達(dá)TLR3,這種TLR3途徑的激活能夠抑制細(xì)胞增殖、誘導(dǎo)腫瘤細(xì)胞死亡[50],這是由于 TLR3激活后介導(dǎo)炎癥介質(zhì)表達(dá)和釋放,導(dǎo)致自身抗腫瘤免疫提高的結(jié)果[51]。
3.1 TLRs信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路 TLRs在腫瘤組織中的復(fù)雜作用與其介導(dǎo)的信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路密切相關(guān)。目前,TLRs信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑[52]分為兩種:人髓樣分化因子88(MyD88)依賴性途徑和MyD88非依賴性途徑[2,53](見圖1)。其中 TLR1、TLR2、TLR5、TLR6、TLR7、TLR8、TLR9是由MyD88依賴性途徑介導(dǎo)的,TLR3是由MyD88非依賴性途徑介導(dǎo)的,而TLR4可同時(shí)經(jīng)過兩條途徑進(jìn)行信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)[54]。
對于MyD88依賴性途徑,白細(xì)胞介素1(Interleukin 1,IL-1)受體家族與TLRs具有相似的細(xì)胞內(nèi)TIR 結(jié)構(gòu)域(Toll/IL-1R homologous region,TIR),兩者具有相似的信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑[55]。大多數(shù)的TLRs均顯示可以通過接頭蛋白MyD88激活I(lǐng)L-1受體相關(guān)激 酶(IL-1 receptorassociatedkinase,IRAK)。MyD88有三個(gè)功能區(qū)域:N端的死亡區(qū)(Death domain,DD)、中間區(qū)域和C端的toll區(qū)。TIR結(jié)構(gòu)域類似于IL-1受體的胞質(zhì)區(qū),通過募集連接蛋白來傳遞信號。DD介導(dǎo)有DD序列的蛋白質(zhì)與蛋白質(zhì)之間的相互作用。當(dāng)TLRs與PAMPs結(jié)合后其本身結(jié)構(gòu)發(fā)生二聚化,通過TIR結(jié)構(gòu)域與MyD88的C端toll區(qū)相互作用,活化后的MyD88的DD募集下游同樣含死亡結(jié)構(gòu)域的絲/蘇氨酸蛋白激酶(Serine/threonine-kinase)導(dǎo)致IRAK自身磷酸化,磷酸化的IRAK1和IRAK4共同激活腫瘤壞死因子受體相關(guān)因子(Tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor,TRAF),活化后的TRAF6與轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子(TGF)-β及轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子β活化的激酶(Transforming growth factor-β activated kinase,TAK1)結(jié)合蛋白(TAK1-binding protein 1,TAK1)形成 TAB1/2復(fù)合物,最終活化核因子(NF)-κB,產(chǎn)生大量的炎性因子(如IFN-γ、TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6、IL-8 等),介導(dǎo)機(jī)體的炎癥應(yīng)答[30]。
對于MyD88非依賴性途徑,需要TIR結(jié)構(gòu)域銜接蛋白(TRIF)的參與。TLR4通過接頭蛋白TRAM將信息傳遞給銜接蛋白TRIF,從而進(jìn)行信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo),這個(gè)途徑可誘導(dǎo)DC成熟,最后誘導(dǎo)免疫應(yīng)答的發(fā)生。而TLR3則直接通過TRIF進(jìn)行信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)。最終激活 NF-κB 誘導(dǎo) IFN-β 的分泌[56]。
3.2 TLRs相關(guān)信號通路對腫瘤的影響 TLRs啟動(dòng)經(jīng)典的NF-κB信號通路,產(chǎn)生細(xì)胞因子,構(gòu)成腫瘤微環(huán)境,促進(jìn)癌癥的發(fā)生、發(fā)展[57]。然而腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展受多種信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路的影響,例如MAPK信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑、Akt/PKB信號通路、Wnt信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑、Stat3(Signal transducers and activator transcription factors,STATs)信號途徑等,那么TLRs信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑對腫瘤的影響是否與這些通路相關(guān)?TLRs途徑激活后活化TRAF6,TRAF6是E3泛素連接酶家族的成員,目前被認(rèn)為是MAPK信號通路最為關(guān)鍵的激活劑[58]。這兩條信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑在腫瘤組織中協(xié)同作用,促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞分泌炎癥因子,如 TGF-β、VEGF、IL-8等從而促進(jìn)腫瘤的增殖以及凋亡抵抗。Stat3信號途徑激活后上調(diào)CyclinD1的表達(dá)[59],而CyclinD1是Wnt/β-catenin途徑下游調(diào)控的靶基因,也是TLRs途徑下游信號分子之一,這三條信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路可能通過CyclinD1協(xié)同促進(jìn)腫瘤的增殖。Akt/PKB途徑激活后調(diào)節(jié)IKK活性導(dǎo)致NF-κB的核轉(zhuǎn)位及活化,由此與TLRs途徑相關(guān)聯(lián)而影響腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展。
圖1 TLRs信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路Fig.1 TLRs signal transduction pathway
腫瘤組織中存在多種信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路,構(gòu)成一個(gè)非常復(fù)雜的信號網(wǎng)絡(luò)系統(tǒng)。不同的信號可以激活同一條轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路,而同一信號往往能夠激活多條信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)通路,多種信號通路活化后也可作用相同的效應(yīng)基因,這表明各通路在腫瘤發(fā)生發(fā)展中可能起協(xié)同作用。腫瘤組織中的多條信號通路間的分子作用機(jī)制還有待于進(jìn)一步研究。
TLRs在天然免疫中有極其重要的作用,也是腫瘤發(fā)生發(fā)展過程中關(guān)鍵的調(diào)控因子,但其作用機(jī)制尚未完全明了。對于TLRs信號轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)途徑及其相關(guān)通路與腫瘤之間相互關(guān)系、相互作用的研究有助于臨床上探索抗腫瘤治療的措施,為抗腫瘤治療增加新的靶點(diǎn)。然而在腫瘤微環(huán)境中,腫瘤細(xì)胞及浸潤的免疫細(xì)胞表面均表達(dá)TLRs,免疫細(xì)胞表面TLRs激活后介導(dǎo)免疫反應(yīng)具有抗腫瘤作用和促進(jìn)腫瘤細(xì)胞免疫逃逸作用,而腫瘤細(xì)胞表面TLRs激活后介導(dǎo)反應(yīng)具有損傷免疫細(xì)胞的抗腫瘤作用,從而促進(jìn)腫瘤的增殖、增強(qiáng)腫瘤的侵襲性及抗凋亡特性,如何通過選擇性抑制腫瘤細(xì)胞表面的TLRs途徑而抗腫瘤治療仍是我們臨床研究的重點(diǎn)。
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