夏 晨
(銅陵學院外國語學院,安徽銅陵 244061)
從關聯(lián)理論視角簡析總統(tǒng)辯論中認知語境的作用
夏 晨
(銅陵學院外國語學院,安徽銅陵 244061)
本文以關聯(lián)理論為視角,選用明示-推理模式,以美國總統(tǒng)大選辯論為語料,分析認知語境在話語構建中的作用。本文發(fā)現,辯論雙方通過使用非關聯(lián)或者欠關聯(lián)的話語方式擴大、縮小、偏移或者重建認知語境,從而達到回避問題、抨擊對手、自我實現的語用效果,認知語境的改變成為有效的語用策略。
認知語境;明示推理;語境效果;語境假設
最早提出“語境”概念的是語言學家馬林洛夫斯基。傳統(tǒng)的語境學是基于語境的靜態(tài)研究,局限于語言的上下文,強調“當時當地正在發(fā)生的人活動(朱永生 2005:3)[1]”,忽略了語言外的知識。弗斯 (1950)在文章“Personality of situation in society”開始關注語言外的社會因素,并逐漸研究特定交際情境中語言的社會適應性,也未能闡釋交際中人的心理、社會因素對言語交際的影響。因此,隨著認知語用學的出現,從認知角度用命題演繹、心理映射、模塊理論動態(tài)地研究語境,成為語境研究的新趨勢。Sperber 和Wilson于1986年提出的關聯(lián)理論是認知語用學代表性理論,從關聯(lián)角度闡述了語境的動態(tài)選擇。
Sperber和Wilson認為語境是一個心理構建體,是存在于聽話者腦海中的一系列假設,包括百科信息,邏輯信息,詞匯信息,即認知語境(2011:15)[2],動態(tài)決定語義闡釋:當新信息激活聽話者腦海中的信息圖示, 并與認知環(huán)境產生認知互明,依據最佳關聯(lián)原則,聽話者將自動選取最為關聯(lián)的假設,為話語理解構建新的語境,推導說話人的話語含義。認知語境自動選擇語境假設取得最大語境效果的過程就是最佳關聯(lián)的過程,話語理解體現了認知語境的動態(tài)選擇。
(一)非關聯(lián)和欠關聯(lián)的語用模式
關聯(lián)理論認為言語交際包含兩種歸約性意圖,信息意圖和交際意圖。聽話者根據說話者提供的明示信息使用最小努力得到最大語境效果,就是信息意圖實現的過程。相反,說話者提供的新信息和聽話人原有語境假設結合失敗,但說話者的明示信息又值得聽話者盡最大努力構建新的語境假設去理解,那么得出話語含義的過程就是交際意圖實現的過程。但是并非所有的語境假設都具有語境效果。關聯(lián)理論指出,當且僅當新假設加強原有假設,與原有假設矛盾或否定原假設,或者可推導出隱含話語含義時,非關聯(lián)或者欠關聯(lián)的話語假設本身才是關聯(lián)的(2002:18)[3]。
例1.JIM LEHRER:We'll talk about -- specifically about health care in a moment, but what is -- do you support the voucher system, Governor?
MITT ROMNEY:What I support is no change for current retirees and near-retirees to Medicare and the president supports taking $716 billion out of that program.(The First Presidential Debate, 2012)
對話選取雙方對社保和醫(yī)療計劃改革的討論。羅姆尼州長改革受益對象是未來的受益者,被批判為“優(yōu)惠券”計劃。主持人在“優(yōu)惠券”計劃被例數種種弊端后詢問羅姆尼州長是否支持該計劃,羅姆尼州長表達了不改變針對“當前”和“即將退休”者傳統(tǒng)醫(yī)保計劃的語境假設。這個假設不與“優(yōu)惠券”計劃有關,也沒有對上文語境產生影響,因此是非關聯(lián)語境假設。
但是, 總統(tǒng)辯論中不會闡述毫無意義的話語,看似無關聯(lián)的回答是值得花費努力重建語境尋找關聯(lián)的。觀眾從短時記憶中提取語境假設發(fā)現,“當前”和“即將退休”與羅姆尼前文觀點重合并加強前語境假設,“沒有想要更改社保計劃或醫(yī)保計劃中有關已經退休或者接近退休人士的那部分”,暗示了將要修改針對未來受益者的醫(yī)保計劃,委婉表達對“優(yōu)惠券”計劃的贊同。
(二)明示-推理的語用模式
說話者的明示言語行為能為聽話者推導并實現交際意圖,依靠說話者和聽話者之間的認知互明(2006:24)[4]。Sperber 和Wilson指出,交際雙方所使用的認知語境是認知環(huán)境共同顯映的部分,說話者在關聯(lián)原則指導下通過明示刺激使一系列假設在聽話者認知環(huán)境顯映,引導聽話者利用接收的圖示信息構建新的認知語境理解說話者的交際意圖[5]。
例 2. CROWLEY: We're looking at a situation where 40 percent of the unemployed have been unemployed for six months or more. What about those long term unemployed who need a job right now?
ROMNEY: We have fewer people working today than we had when the president took office. If the -the unemployment rate was 7.8 percent when he took office, it's 7.8 percent now. But if you calculated that unemployment rate, taking back the people who dropped out of the workforce, it would be 10.7 percent.(The Second Presidential Debate, 2012)
主持人對如何為公民創(chuàng)造就業(yè)機會提問,這是美國面臨的嚴峻的社會問題,也是觀眾認知環(huán)境的組成部分。羅姆尼州長通過一系列數據明示失業(yè)現狀,這些數據在觀眾的認知環(huán)境中顯映,讓人們意識到過去四年里奧巴馬總統(tǒng)不僅沒有減少失業(yè)率反而讓失業(yè)率上升,從而得出奧巴馬政府不值得信任的結論,達到了抨擊對手的目的。
圖1 明示、顯映、交際意圖獲得過程
推理是對明示言語行為的非歸約性解碼,通過處理明示假設得到最佳關聯(lián)的推理過程。聽話者在最佳關聯(lián)指導下解碼明示刺激的信息意圖,使其與心理圖示的舊信息相互顯映,然后構建一系列的語境假設來處理說話者建立的語境假設,并從新舊假設中得到語境效果,推導說話者的交際意圖[6]。
例3.SCHIEFFER: Governor, would you go beyond what the administration would do, like for example, would you put in no-fly zones over Syria?
ROMNEY: I don't want to have our military involved in Syria. I don't think there is a necessity to put our military in Syria at this stage. I don't anticipate that in the future. (The Third Presidential Debate, 2012)
羅姆尼州長使用排比句式清晰表明觀點,傳達了信息意圖。明示刺激“I don’t” 在觀眾認知環(huán)境里構建起如下語境假設:
(1)Military has been in Syria.
(2)The war goes on.
(3)Assad is still there.
(4)There have had millions of refugees.
語境假設(1)-(4)在觀眾的認知環(huán)境中顯映,在最佳關聯(lián)指導下,推斷出以下結論:
(5)Ministry should not in Syria.
(6)We need reassess our policy.
當然,結論(6)還可以作為新語境假設投射到觀眾的認知語境,產生新的語境效果:
(7)Obama government conducted the wrong policy.
如果觀眾不想放棄,繼續(xù)將結論(7)作為新信息和舊的認知語境相結合,即可產生結論(8),(9):
(8)The current president is not competent for the job.
(9)There is a need to change a competent president.
在明示推理模式中,結論(8),(9)不是推理的終點,它們以圖示或模塊的形式存儲于觀眾的認知語境內,成為下輪推理的初始信息,結合新的明示信息,使認知語境呈動態(tài)的發(fā)展。因此,認知語境具有動態(tài)性被作為語用策略應用在總統(tǒng)辯論中。
關聯(lián)理論明示推理是非規(guī)約性推理,是最佳關聯(lián)制約下的認知語境動態(tài)選擇(2007:35)[7]。事實上,并非每一個明示信息都具有最佳關聯(lián)性(2008:209)[8]。交際者為了自己的話語目的,刻意選取明示刺激,幫助甚至制約聽話者構建語境假設,使明示刺激在關聯(lián)理論的指導下產生語境效果,在此,認知語境的改變成為交際的語用策略。
(一)認知語境的擴大
總統(tǒng)大選政治辯論,雙方主要目的不是爭奪話語權,而是在辯論過程中將強調的部分或者意圖回避的話題通過某種明示手段表現出來,引導觀眾、對手推導話語含義,展現交際意圖。
例4. QUESTION: Mr. President, What can you say to reassure me, but more importantly my parents, that I will be able to sufficiently support myself after I graduate?
OBAMA: Jeremy, first of all, your future is bright. And the fact that you're making an investment in higher education is critical. Not just to you, but to the entire nation. Now, the most important thing we can do is to make sure that we are creating jobs in this country. And what I want to do, is build on the five million jobs to make sure your future is bright. (The Second Presidential Debate, 2012)
20歲的選民Jeremy就教育能否保障自食其力提問。奧巴馬總統(tǒng)構建語境從三個層面回答。首先肯定Jeremy前途光明性和高等教育重要性。接著說明Jeremy的困惑是全國性的問題。隨后闡述自己的政策。這部分多為論斷性陳述句,語境逐步擴大,自信沉穩(wěn)地向Jeremy和觀眾表達在自己的領導下,未來前景的光明。
認知語境擴展不僅可以作為積極語用策略宣揚政績,也可以暫時規(guī)避尖銳問題,爭取思考時間,同時成為抨擊對手的利器。
例 5. CROWLEY: Governor, on the subject of gas prices?
ROMNEY: None of it came on federal land. Oil production is down 14 percent this year on federal land, and gas production was down 9 percent. Because the president cut in half the number of licenses and permits for drilling on federal lands. So where'd the increase come from? Well a lot of it came from the Bakken Range. The administration brought a criminal action against the people drilling up there for oil. (The Second Presidential Debate, 2012)
在闡述觀點前,羅姆尼州長構建語境對奧巴馬總統(tǒng)展開激烈抨擊。話題從油價擴展到能源,拓展語境指出政策的失誤之處:
(1)None of the energy come from federal land.
(2)Production of oil and gas was down
(3)President cut licenses and permits for drilling on federal lands.
(4)The increased energy comes from Bakken Range.
(5)The president forbade drilling up oil there for cause the kill of birds.
(6)The administration brought a criminal action.
綜合語境假設(1)-(6),觀眾看到的是政策執(zhí)行欠妥當甚至荒謬的政府。羅姆尼擴展假設成功引導觀眾構建認知語境,偏原有語境,不僅抨擊對手還為宣揚政策奠定基礎。
(二)認知語境縮小
總統(tǒng)辯論中交際者除了辯論雙方,還包括主持人和聽眾。辯論雙方因為社會背景、經歷等因素幾乎共享認知環(huán)境,辯論雙方的明示刺激對彼此是顯性的信息傳達,體現信息意圖;觀眾需要結合自己的語境假設,為明示信息構造新的認知語境,理解隱含的交際意圖。因此,辯論者也會縮小認知語境回避敏感問題。
例 6 SCHIEFFER: Was it spontaneous? Was it an intelligence failure? Was it a policy failure? Was there an attempt to mislead people about what really happened?
OBAMA: I immediately made sure that, number one, that we did everything we could to secure those Americans who were still in harm's way; number two, that we would investigate exactly what happened, and number three, most importantly, that we would go after those who killed Americans and we would bring them to justice. (The Third Presidential Debate, 2012)
主持人對利比亞的恐怖襲擊連續(xù)提問,詢問事件原因,動機,質疑是否存在政策失誤或者企圖誤導公眾掩蓋真相。面對敏感問題,奧巴馬總統(tǒng)回顧了過去四年美國是如何打擊恐怖活動并取得勝利之后,構建語境,縮小范圍,從及時救援、調查原因、追蹤疑兇三個方面回答,堅定公民對政府的信心,樹立了強大的美國政府形象。 “immediately”以及條理清晰的陳述,作為明示信息讓公眾認識到政府的高效機制,重建對政府信任時,也忽略了奧巴馬總統(tǒng)對敏感問題的回避。
(三)認知語境重建
總統(tǒng)辯論最重要的交際目的是宣揚策略,得到更多民眾支持,獲得自我價值的實現。面對犀利問題,過于迂回、規(guī)避會帶來負面影響。為了實現交際目的,展現自信與潛質,交際者也會改變認知語境。
例7. QUESTION: Do you agree with Secretary Chu that this is not the job of the Energy Department?
OBAMA: we still continue to open up new areas for drilling. We continue to make it a priority for us to go after natural gas. We've got potentially 600,000 jobs and 100 years worth of energy right beneath our feet with natural gas. And we can do it in an environmentally sound way.(The Second Presidential Debate, 2012)
能源是總統(tǒng)辯論中關注重點話題之一,對能源部長的質疑就是對總統(tǒng)執(zhí)政能力的質疑。因此,奧巴馬總統(tǒng)完全繞開話題,構建語境,從正面回應自己執(zhí)政的四年在能源方面做出的努力,指出降低能源需求的途徑正是降低汽油價格的途徑。在重構的語境中,奧巴馬總統(tǒng)用數據說明過去四年政府采取的措施不僅緩解了能源危機,還創(chuàng)造了60萬的工作崗位,不僅巧妙避開了問題,還從能源和就業(yè)兩個方便宣揚了自己的政策。
認知作為語用策略頻繁運用在總統(tǒng)辯論中。辯論雙方為了自己的政治目的,利用明示信息控制觀眾認知語境形成,達到宣揚政策、回避問題、抨擊對手的目的。在闡述明示信息,或者引導觀眾推理中,無關聯(lián)或者欠關聯(lián)話語成為語用橋梁,成為委婉規(guī)避的主要策略。在最佳關聯(lián)原則下的無關聯(lián)和欠關聯(lián)話語成為構建認知語境的重要因素。
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[責任編輯張燦邦]
Analysis Cognitive Context in Presidential Debate with The Model of Relevance Theory
XIA Chen
(Foreign Language School, Tongling University, Tongling, Anhui 24061,China)
The paper aims to analyze function of cognitive context in conversation construction with ostensive –inferential model of Relevance Theory. The paper takes presidential debate as data to find that both sides in debate try to enlarge, reduce or re-construct cognitive context in ostensive-inferential model. Both sides in debates choose ostensive information to guide the cognitive context formation of audience which taken as a way to do evasive reply for sharp question or attack opponent or promote their policies. Therefore, rebuild cognitive context can be used as pragmatic method in the debating.
cognitive context;ostensive-inferential model;contextual effect;contextual assumption
H0
:A
:1008-9128(2014)03-0059-04
2013-09-29
夏晨(1985—),女,安徽銅陵人,碩士,助教,研究方向:語言學。