劉諾亞

(荊楚理工學(xué)院外國(guó)語學(xué)院，湖北荊門 448000)

一、“同一”修辭理論及其認(rèn)知心理學(xué)原理

亞里士多德在《修辭學(xué)》中認(rèn)為修辭是邏輯和政治的對(duì)等物，把它稱作是一種調(diào)動(dòng)一切可以調(diào)動(dòng)的勸說手段［1］。他提出了演講中勸說的三要素即邏輯訴諸、情感訴諸和人格訴諸(Logos，pathos and ethos)。在肯尼思·伯克的修辭體系中，“同一”的概念是其核心理論，根據(jù)伯克的觀點(diǎn)，修辭是用符號(hào)(即語言)去誘發(fā)合作的行為，即修辭者要達(dá)到勸說的目的，必須與受眾者實(shí)現(xiàn)“同一”(Identification)。一個(gè)人要么試圖通過論辯來勸說其聽眾，他必須根據(jù)他們的思維方式來進(jìn)行;通過情感，就必須具有在某種程度上指望聽眾能有的感情?！巴弧痹诮浑H中的作用已經(jīng)得到實(shí)驗(yàn)證明［2］，無論是訴諸邏輯、情感還是人格，其最終目的都是為了達(dá)到“同一”。這個(gè)概念的提出把古典修辭學(xué)(其核心是勸說)和新修辭學(xué)有機(jī)地結(jié)合起來并對(duì)勸說進(jìn)行了補(bǔ)充，把在順從和訴諸修辭中整個(gè)自覺的和不自覺的動(dòng)機(jī)語言范圍都包括了進(jìn)去，成為新修辭學(xué)的關(guān)鍵詞之一。從認(rèn)知心理學(xué)來看，人在同一維度上的心理因素是:價(jià)值、態(tài)度、需要、信念、認(rèn)知、情感、知識(shí)等等［3］，勸說的“認(rèn)同”導(dǎo)致心理領(lǐng)域的這些因素的同一性，才能達(dá)到形成觀點(diǎn)(態(tài)度)，改變觀點(diǎn)(態(tài)度)或加強(qiáng)觀點(diǎn)(態(tài)度)的目的。在伯克看來，這種“同一”一共有三種策略:同情同一(identification by sympathy)、對(duì)立同一(identification by antithesis)和無意識(shí)同一(identification by inaccuracy)。所謂“同情同一”，是指在思想、態(tài)度、情感、價(jià)值、等方面的相同或相似。所謂“對(duì)立同一”，是指修辭者與受眾因?yàn)榫哂泄餐膯栴}、挑戰(zhàn)、敵人而達(dá)到認(rèn)同。所謂“無意識(shí)同一”是指修辭者使用某些手段如圖片、或如類似“我們”的詞語使受眾無意識(shí)或潛意識(shí)地認(rèn)同修辭者，想象自己成為修辭者或如修辭所描繪的那樣。法庭是原告代理律師(或公訴人)和辯護(hù)律師展示自己的演說和辯論才能的舞臺(tái)，是控辯雙方律師的戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)，而法庭辯論和演說是為了進(jìn)一步闡述和鞏固自己的觀點(diǎn)和立場(chǎng)，駁斥和削弱對(duì)方的觀點(diǎn)和立場(chǎng)，與陪審團(tuán)和法官在以上提到的各個(gè)心理因素在心理維度上達(dá)到“同一”，最終達(dá)到說服陪審團(tuán)和法官的目的。

二、法庭英語演說中認(rèn)同策略的表現(xiàn)形式

(一)受眾特點(diǎn)

在西方修辭學(xué)中，受眾是指修辭者進(jìn)行修辭說服從而達(dá)到其目的的對(duì)象，對(duì)受眾的正確把握也是確保演講成功的關(guān)鍵因素。在西方大多數(shù)國(guó)家里實(shí)行的是陪審團(tuán)制度，即指由特定人數(shù)的有選舉權(quán)的公民參與決定嫌犯是否起訴、是否有罪的制度。在陪審團(tuán)制度的司法體制里，律師在法庭上首先也是最重要的受眾是陪審團(tuán)成員，他們直接影響和決定審判的結(jié)果，是律師首先要激起共鳴和說服的對(duì)象;其次是法官，雖然法官無權(quán)干涉陪審團(tuán)的判案結(jié)果，但他她在司法程序上是控制和引導(dǎo)者，也就是說在法庭上，陪審團(tuán)負(fù)責(zé)裁定案件事實(shí)，法官負(fù)責(zé)如何適用法律。最后的受眾是旁聽者，其中包括數(shù)目有限的媒體報(bào)道者。雖然按照法律，他們只是旁聽和見證者，在庭審現(xiàn)場(chǎng)不得制造噪音，不得干擾庭審過程，但是他們及時(shí)的情緒情感反映也會(huì)微妙地影響著庭審現(xiàn)場(chǎng)中的控辯雙方、證人、陪審團(tuán)和法官，甚至是庭審進(jìn)程。

(二)法庭演說:“分隔論”和修辭的力量

伯克認(rèn)為，與“同一論”相矛盾的是“分隔論”［4］。因?yàn)槿藗兯枷氲牟煌?，分隔提供了同一成為人類所需求的一種情景，使得同一和修辭具有目的。在法庭演說中，律師和受眾包括陪審團(tuán)和法官之間存在分隔，所以其目的和任務(wù)就是要使用修辭來達(dá)到“一種殘余的、共同的折中方法，以此來消除派性，達(dá)到同體化和歸屬性”［5］，即在心理維度上達(dá)成一致，最終說服。對(duì)于“言”和“力”的關(guān)系，古希臘先師和當(dāng)代哲辯思想家們普遍認(rèn)為，詞語本身并沒有什么內(nèi)在的價(jià)值和能力，但是一旦在具體的社會(huì)、文化、政治語境中得到應(yīng)用，也就是說一旦從語言層面上升到修辭層面，就成為一種異乎尋常的力量［6］。從法庭唇槍舌劍般的辯論和演說中，“言”和“力”的關(guān)系得到了淋漓盡致的體現(xiàn)。法庭演說的修辭性策略正是為了達(dá)到與在場(chǎng)的法官、陪審員甚至是旁聽者等受眾的“同一”和說服的效果。本文擬從比較和類比、比喻、反問和重復(fù)四個(gè)主要手段來具體分析律師法庭演說的同一修辭策略在形式上的表現(xiàn)。

1.使用比較和類比

在法庭演說中，律師使用比較和類比的手法可以制造“同情同一”和“對(duì)比同一”的效果。“同情同一”的表現(xiàn)方式就是想對(duì)方之所想，憂人之憂，樂人之樂，正如英文單詞“sympathy”由“sym”和“pathy”兩部分構(gòu)成，分別表示“相同”和“心理”一樣，“同情同一”即表達(dá)與受眾相同的心理和情感，律師在法庭上要將這種機(jī)制運(yùn)用于演說之中并能被受眾領(lǐng)悟。以下例子的案件發(fā)生在種族歧視和偏見肆虐的美國(guó)南方某地，一個(gè)十一歲的黑人女孩被兩個(gè)白人青年用殘忍到令人發(fā)指的方式強(qiáng)暴并殺害。而審判地點(diǎn)設(shè)在白人多數(shù)區(qū)，陪審團(tuán)成員和法官也都是白人，在各種因素對(duì)原告方不利的情況下，原告方代理律師在最后總結(jié)陳詞時(shí)發(fā)表如下演說:

Now，I had a great summation all worked out，full of some sharp lawyering，but I’m not doing it.I’m here to apologize.I am young，and I am inexperienced.But you cannot hold Carl Lee Hailey responsible for my shortcomings.You see，in all this legal maneuvering，something’s got lost.That something is the truth.What is it in us that seeks the truth?Is it our minds or is it our hearts?…… But we don’t know better.I want to tell you a story.I want to ask you to close your eyes while I tell you the story.I want you to listen to me.I want you to listen to yourselves.Go ahead.Close your eyes please.This is a story about a little girl，walking home from the grocery store one sunny afternoon.I want you to picture this girl.Suddenly a truck races up.Two men jump out and grab her.They drag her to a nearby field，and they tie her up.They rip her clothes from her body.And they climb on.First one，then the other，raping her，shattering everything innocent and pure，with a vicious thrust，in a fog of drunken breath and sweat，and when they’re done，after they’ve killed her tiny womb，murdered any chance for her to bear children，to have life beyond her own，they start to use her for target practice.So they start throwing full beer cans at her.They throw them so hard，that it tears the flesh all the way to her bones，then they urinate on her.Now comes the hanging.They have a rope.They tie a noose.Imagine the noose coiling tight around her neck，and a sudden blinding jerk，she’s pulled into the air and her feet go kicking.They don’t find the ground.The hanging branch isn’t strong enough.It snaps and she falls back to the earth.So they pick her up，throw her in the back of the truck，drive out to Foggy Creek Bridge，pitch her over the edge.And she drops some 30 feet，down to the creek bottom below.Can you see her?Her raped?Her beaten?Broken body?Soaked in their urine?Soaked in their semen，soaked in her blood，left to die.Can you see her?I want you to picture that little girl.Now imagine she is white.The defense rests.

在這一段演說中，律師首先用樸素的語言、坦誠(chéng)的態(tài)度、真摯的情感打動(dòng)人，所以最后當(dāng)他要在場(chǎng)所有人都閉上眼睛聽他講故事的請(qǐng)求雖然令人感到意外，但大家都心甘情愿地閉上眼睛，聽他發(fā)自肺腑地講訴一個(gè)十一歲的黑人少女是如何被兩個(gè)白人青年殘忍地強(qiáng)暴和殺害的過程。在故事結(jié)尾處，他在長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的因哽咽和泣不成聲的停頓之后，突然話鋒一轉(zhuǎn)，要在場(chǎng)的所有人想象受害者如果是一個(gè)白人女孩的情形，“I want you to picture that little girl.Now imagine she is white.”這句話如平地一聲驚雷，讓所有沉浸在悲痛中的陪審團(tuán)成員和旁聽者都猛然睜開了眼睛，其中很多人已經(jīng)淚流滿面，低聲抽泣。這一句話起到了運(yùn)用“同情同一”所達(dá)到的最佳效果，也為原告律師贏得官司起到了關(guān)鍵的作用，修辭者真正像修辭受眾那樣所言、所思、所感、所為。另外，演講中還很好地運(yùn)用了“無意識(shí)同一”策略。按照伯克的觀點(diǎn)，無意識(shí)同一讓“觀眾受到修辭文本的感染，感受到自己擁有同樣的權(quán)利和力量，賦予了同樣的特質(zhì)和好處”［7］。演講中使用“We”，“our minds”，“our hearts”這樣的詞匯，要求“我們”追求真理是用“我們的心靈”而不是“我們的大腦”，體現(xiàn)了演講者與受眾者在認(rèn)知心理、普世價(jià)值觀和情感價(jià)值觀的同一。因此，這兩種同一策略共同作用，使得結(jié)案陳詞演說充滿了人性的力量，為最終贏得官司起了決定性的作用。

再舉一例，此例的原告方律師代理當(dāng)事人控告某生產(chǎn)銷售槍支彈藥的公司只為牟利，任由槍支在市場(chǎng)上泛濫以及持槍暴力的肆掠橫行，造成當(dāng)事人家人無辜喪命。下面是原告方律師的開庭陳詞演說:

October，two years ago，at 8:45 a.m.on a Monday morning，a man by the name of Kevin Peltier casually walks into the brokerage house from which he was fired the previous Friday morning.He walks into the elevator，he loads a 36－round magazine into his Performa 990 semiautomatic，and when he reaches the third floor，he opens fire on his former coworkers，killing 11 and critically wounding five before turning the gun on himself.Now they never had a chance.This was all less than two minutes.They couldn’t stop him.Eleven lives ended.That’s all you jurors minus one.And among them was Jacob Wood，the husband of my client，Celeste Wood，and the father of their son Henry，6 years old.Now I don’t know about you，but I’m angry at the tragic and senseless loss of life.Why does the Vicksburg Firearms Company make it so easy to buy these guns on the underground market?Because they care more about making money than they do about your life，or my life or the life of that woman’s husband.A very courageous former executive of Vicksburg Firearms，he is gonna come here.He is gonna testify that this Performa 990 semiautomatic was manufactured for，principally，criminals，and all those others poised for violence，turning it into a very efficient mass murderer.Yes，it was Mr.Peltier that squeezed the trigger that awful morning，but it was the Vicksburg Firearms Company through a deliberate，negligent distribution policy，that put that assault－type weapon into the hands of Mr.Peltier.As such，they were complicit in those murders.This I’ll prove to you during the course of the trial.Thank you very much.

律師在此段演講中利用了“對(duì)立同一”的修辭策略。按認(rèn)知心理學(xué)解釋，“對(duì)立同一”的基礎(chǔ)就是“公敵”，即修辭者和受眾擁有共同討厭、仇恨和反對(duì)的問題、人和事物，而在價(jià)值觀、利益、情感、信仰、認(rèn)知等方面達(dá)到認(rèn)同，正如契訶夫所說:愛、友誼和尊重都不能像某種共同的仇恨那樣把人團(tuán)結(jié)在一起。演說者以講故事的方式開始開庭陳詞:一個(gè)被公司開除后的員工為發(fā)泄怨恨，荷槍實(shí)彈地來到公司，面對(duì)人群提槍掃射，瞬間11人殞命。為了描述事件的慘狀，演說者把11人這個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)跟陪審團(tuán)12人數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行對(duì)比:Eleven lives ended.That’s all you jurors minus one.這種手法很高明，因?yàn)樵媛蓭煹哪康暮芮宄銓張F(tuán)才是最終決定官司輸贏的關(guān)鍵因素，如果陪審團(tuán)被說服和打動(dòng)了，產(chǎn)生對(duì)槍支泛濫的共同仇恨，案情審判就會(huì)朝有利于自己的方向發(fā)展而最終贏得官司。因此，這一句對(duì)比看似漫不經(jīng)心，實(shí)則很有份量，體現(xiàn)了律師精明敏銳的職業(yè)素養(yǎng)，符合伯克“對(duì)立同一”的修辭策略。

2.使用比喻

首先，法律語言的使用必須建立在證據(jù)和邏輯推理基礎(chǔ)之上，講求直白、準(zhǔn)確，使用比喻的修辭手段可能會(huì)造成含蓄委婉，甚至使用不當(dāng)?shù)谋扔骺赡軙?huì)造成不良的法律后果。其次是不恰當(dāng)?shù)谋扔鲿?huì)適得其反，引火燒身，反而達(dá)不到目的，因此應(yīng)該慎用比喻。然而這一事實(shí)不能妨礙我們?cè)谒痉ㄕZ言中創(chuàng)造性地使用語言，尤其是用比喻的方式來達(dá)到生動(dòng)性和煽動(dòng)性效果。功能語言學(xué)派倫敦學(xué)派的先驅(qū)費(fèi)斯［8］說:“語言有一種自然傾向，在聲音、手勢(shì)、符號(hào)等等使用的后面存在強(qiáng)烈的愿望和動(dòng)機(jī)?！笔褂眯揶o正是體現(xiàn)了這種目的—完成一種強(qiáng)烈的愿望和動(dòng)機(jī)的表達(dá)。比喻手段以其豐富的聯(lián)想性、具體性和鮮明性表現(xiàn)出強(qiáng)大的語言藝術(shù)魅力。恰當(dāng)使用比喻手段，可以把一些難以說明的事情或者復(fù)雜的情況，用一種生動(dòng)，令人親切、熟悉、易懂的方式再現(xiàn)出來，從而取得良好的效果，在聽眾中間會(huì)造成強(qiáng)烈的情緒感染和認(rèn)同效果。以下是一段公訴人的開庭演說:

Andrew Marsh made，what turned out to be，the fatal mistake:he fell in love.He fell in love with a ruthless，calculating woman who went after an elderly man with a bad heart and a big bank account.You all can see the defendant Rebecca Carlson.But as this trial proceeds，you will see she is not only the defendant，she is the murder weapon herself.If I hit you and you die，I am the cause of your death，but can I be called a weapon?The answer is yes.And what kind of weapon Rebecca Carlson has made of it?The State will prove that she seduced Andrew Marsh and manipulated his affections until he rewrote his will，leaving her 8 million dollars，that she insisted on increasingly strangling sex，knowing he had severe heart condition.And when that didn’t work faster enough for her，she secretly doped him with cocaine.His heart couldn’t take the combination，and she got what she wanted.

She is a beautiful woman，but when this trial is over，you will see her no differently than a gun or a knife or any other instruments used as a weapon.She is a killer，and the worst kind，a killer who disguised herself as a loving partner.

在這段演說中，公訴人控訴被告以戀愛為名謀殺他人，讓受害者更改遺囑以非法手段獲取巨額遺產(chǎn)。為了加強(qiáng)控訴的說服力，律師在兩處用了暗喻:“She is the murder weapon herself.”“no differently than a gun or a knife or any other instruments used as a weapon.”這兩句都帶有開庭陳述的總結(jié)性質(zhì)，使結(jié)論更加堅(jiān)定果斷。按照認(rèn)知心理原理，這里的比喻實(shí)施了“對(duì)立同一”的策略，起到了煽動(dòng)受眾對(duì)被告共同的恨和怨的效果。

3.使用修辭問句

修辭問句有反問和設(shè)問兩種，表現(xiàn)形式多樣，有的自問自答，有的問而不答，也有的甲問乙答。用修辭問句來強(qiáng)調(diào)某概念或突出某項(xiàng)內(nèi)容，比一般的肯定或否定更有力量和氣勢(shì)，更令人信服。下例是某律師為當(dāng)事人進(jìn)行辯護(hù)的總結(jié)陳詞演說:

“Ladies and gentlemen，the State has charged these three men with a crime.And they supported that charge with the testimony of two witnesses.Sarah Tobias，who told you how three men raped her，and she heard other men shouting encouragement to her attackers.Did she name these other men?No.Did she describe these other men?No.Could she tell you what these other men shouted?No.Her sworn testimony－－h(huán)er poignant，heart－rending sworn testimony－－was an appeal to your pity.And if her story is true，you should pity her.But even if her story is true and you do pity her that has nothing to do with this case，because those three men did not rape her.Her sworn testimony is nothing，and you must treat it as nothing.Now if you wish，you can also treat as nothing the testimony of her lover，Larry，who told you what kind of woman she is.And you can treat as nothing the testimony of the bartender，Jesse，who told you that she was so drunk，she could barely stand.And you can treat as nothing the testimony of her friend，Sally，who told you what Miss Tobia’s intentions were when she first saw our clients.Our case does not depend on those witnesses，just as the People’s case does not depend on Sarah Tobias’.The People’s case depends on Kenneth Joyce.If you believe him，you’ll convict those three men.And if you don’t，you’ll acquit them.Do you believe him?Why did Kenneth Joyce testify?Every day for months，he said to himself，“I’m guilty.”，“I’m guilty.”Finally he was offered a way to purge that guilt，and he took it.Kenneth Joyce told you he watched a rape and everyone else in that room watched a rape.How did he know that?Did he read their minds?To solicit a crime，you must first know that it is a crime.Who knew it?Kenneth Joyce.Do you think it matters to Kenneth Joyce who shouted? In his mind，every person in that room was guilty.He told you that.And Kenneth Joyce－－who is guilty，who did watch a rape and do nothing，will purge himself by bringing down anyone who was in that room.And of course，at no legal cost to himself，while those three men face prison.Do you believe him?If you do，convict him.And if you don’t，and I know you don’t，acquit.”

演說者共用了十個(gè)反問句和設(shè)問句，形成滔滔不絕、咄咄逼人、語氣強(qiáng)烈的氣勢(shì)，給受眾強(qiáng)烈的感情刺激和震撼，同時(shí)在價(jià)值、情感、認(rèn)知、需要等心理因素處于同一維度，激發(fā)受眾者思考、判斷，從而打動(dòng)和說服受眾。

4.使用重復(fù)排比

重復(fù)和排比是在法庭辯論和演說中常見的修辭手法，可以產(chǎn)生排炮連發(fā)、氣貫長(zhǎng)虹、語氣酣暢的效果。以下一段是緊接著上例被告方律師總結(jié)陳詞后的演說，控方律師在法庭結(jié)案陳詞中為遭到強(qiáng)暴的女當(dāng)事人進(jìn)行辯護(hù)，控訴被告的演說:

“Ladies and gentlemen，Mr.Paulsen has told you the testimony of Sarah Tobias is nothing.Sarah Tobias was raped，but that is nothing.She was cut and bruised and terrorized，but that is nothing.All of it happened in front of a howling crowd，and that is nothing.Well，it may be nothing to Mr.Paulsen，but it is not nothing to Sarah Tobias.And I don’t believe it’s nothing to you.Next Mr.Paulsen tried to convince you Kenneth Joyce was the only person in that room who knew that Sarah Tobias was being raped，the only one.Now，you watched Kenneth Joyce，how did he strike you?Did he seem especially sensitive? Especially observant?Did he seem so remarkable that you immediately said to yourself，“Of course，this man would notice things other people wouldn’t.”Do you believe that Kenneth Joyce saw something those three men didn’t see?In all the time that Sarah Tobias was held down on that pinball machine，the others didn’t know?Kenneth Joyce confessed to you that he watched a rape and did nothing.He told you that everyone in that bar behaved badly，and he’s right.But no matter how immoral it may be，it is not the crime of criminal solicitation to walk away for a rape.It is not the crime of criminal solicitation to silently watch a rape.But it is the crime of criminal solicitation to induce，or entreat，or encourage or persuade another person to commit a rape.“Hold her down”，“stick it to her”，“make her moan”these three men did worse than nothing，they cheered，and they clapped，and they rooted the others on.They made sure that Sarah Tobias was raped，and raped，and raped.Now，you tell me，is that nothing?”

當(dāng)對(duì)方辯護(hù)律師在演說中使用了“nothing”之后，控方律師抓住這個(gè)詞不放，以其人之道，還治其人之身，重復(fù)“nothing”達(dá)十次之多。他以“nothing”開頭，又以“nothing”結(jié)尾，首尾呼應(yīng)，語調(diào)鏗鏘，一氣呵成，具有震撼人心的效果?！皀othing”在不同的句子中間隔出現(xiàn)，這種重復(fù)叫間隔重復(fù)，在中間插入了其他短語或句子，這樣相同的詞語反復(fù)又照應(yīng)，使演說內(nèi)容步步深入，達(dá)到說理透徹，中心突出，層次清晰，也增加了音律美，起到了一唱三嘆的作用，具有極強(qiáng)的感染力和說服力。同時(shí)十次重復(fù)的“nothing”也喚起了受眾者對(duì)受害者的同情，因此起到了“同情同一”效果。

三、結(jié)論

本文結(jié)合法庭演說的實(shí)例，闡釋了伯克的“同一”修辭理論及其三個(gè)策略，描述了該策略在演說中的表現(xiàn)形式，揭示了法庭演說作為一種符合目的原則的言語行為，其語言的修辭策略的選擇和手段帶有強(qiáng)烈的認(rèn)同目的。有效的同一修辭策略的最高境界是語言形式和內(nèi)容完美的和諧統(tǒng)一。而在法庭演說中，為達(dá)到同一修辭策略目的而使用的各種修辭手段可以表現(xiàn)豐富的內(nèi)涵和情感，增強(qiáng)描述的生動(dòng)性、論說的力度和可信度，同時(shí)讓受眾者認(rèn)同其思維、情感和表達(dá)方式，在伯克看來，這是進(jìn)行成功說服的必要條件。不過，正如高懸于美國(guó)法庭外墻上的一句話所說的:It is the spirit not the form of law that keeps justice alive.(捍衛(wèi)正義的是法律的精神而不是法律的形式。)也正如美國(guó)著名律師克萊倫斯·丹諾所說:大多數(shù)律師所做的事情并不都是崇高的，只有當(dāng)他們的正義感得到充分發(fā)揮的時(shí)候，才能使他的職業(yè)變得崇高。蘇格拉底也說過:除非把說明純粹真理叫做雄辯，我根本就不會(huì)雄辯。法庭絕非律師個(gè)人表現(xiàn)的講臺(tái)，一個(gè)律師使用的語言技巧無論多么炫目和感人，最后還是要靠事實(shí)和證據(jù)來昭示一切。

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