黃仲義 黃嘉驊 趙永紅
摘 要 難辨梭菌感染(Clostridium difficile infection, CDI)發(fā)病率正在升高,在有些國家已成為醫(yī)院獲得性感染主要致病菌之一。經(jīng)典藥物治療是采用萬古霉素和/或甲硝唑治療,但近年隨著甲硝唑耐藥新突變株出現(xiàn),臨床對其處理日益困惑。2011年1月非達(dá)霉素獲美國食品和藥物管理局批準(zhǔn)上市,為本病治療開辟了新的治療途徑。本文就非達(dá)霉素藥效學(xué)、藥動學(xué)、安全性、藥物相互作用以及臨床應(yīng)用進行了綜合介紹,并對比了非達(dá)霉素與萬古霉素在治療CDI時藥理作用等區(qū)別,供臨床應(yīng)用時參考。
關(guān)鍵詞 非達(dá)霉素 萬古霉素 難辨梭菌感染 藥效學(xué) 藥動學(xué)
中圖分類號:R978.15 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼:A 文章編號:1006-1533(2014)01-0050-05
以往難辨梭菌(Clostridium difficile, CD)感染者主要是住院重癥患者與老年人,而近十年來CD相關(guān)疾病嚴(yán)重性與發(fā)病率均上升[1],并發(fā)現(xiàn)多重耐藥、超毒力新CD株(NAPI/BI/027),并且該菌株感染頻率增加[2-3],且在較少暴露于醫(yī)療單位的健康個體者中也常見[4]。此外,還出現(xiàn)該耐藥菌株社區(qū)獲得性CD患者[5-6];目前難辨梭菌感染(Clostridium difficile infection,CDI)已被認(rèn)為是超過耐甲氧西林金黃色葡萄球菌(MRSA)的院內(nèi)感染[7]。
當(dāng)前治療CDI主要藥物是甲硝唑與口服萬古霉素,但此二者治療后再發(fā)率高,初始治療再發(fā)率約為20%~25%,再次治療復(fù)發(fā)率可達(dá)50%~65%[8-9];且近年甲硝唑治療失敗率明顯增高,因此SHEA(The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America)和IDSA(The Infections Disease Society of America)均推薦口服萬古霉素作為CD嚴(yán)重感染治療[10-11]。
由于CDI的嚴(yán)重性和高再發(fā)率,萬古霉素又有其自身局限性,臨床上缺乏其它治療方法。2010年11月 Optimer 制藥公司向美國食品和藥物管理局(FDA)提出新藥申請,應(yīng)用非達(dá)霉素治療和預(yù)防CDI及其再發(fā)。FDA于2011年1月和2011年5月先后批準(zhǔn)非達(dá)霉素作為孤兒藥用于治療兒童CDI[12]及成人CDI[13]。本文擬就非達(dá)霉素臨床藥理及臨床應(yīng)用與地位作一綜述。
1 化學(xué)和藥理學(xué)
1.1 化學(xué)
本品系德干高原游動放線菌(Actinoplanes deccanensis)或桔橙指孢囊菌(Dactylosporangium aurantiacum)發(fā)酵產(chǎn)物,屬于新18元大環(huán)內(nèi)酯化合物。分子量1 058.04,分子式系C32H74C12O18[14-17],本品在體內(nèi)可生成仍具活性的代謝物OP-1118。
1.2 藥理學(xué)
1.2.1 抗菌作用機制
本品通過與RNA多聚酶結(jié)合抑制細(xì)菌增殖,大多數(shù)RNA酶有五個亞單位組成,由(α2ββ'ω)組成核心催化酶,另一個是σ亞單位,負(fù)責(zé)啟動子識別[18],由于CD中的σ亞單位不同于其它細(xì)菌株,迄今,體外研究中未見其與其它抗菌藥物交叉耐藥。
1.2.2 微生物學(xué)
1)抗菌譜與最低抑制濃度(MIC) 本品為窄譜抗生素,對革蘭陽性(G+)需氧與厭氧菌具有活性,包括腸球菌、葡萄球菌及CD。本品為殺菌劑,體外研究顯示,本品對CD MIC90為0.078~2 ?g/ml,本品對CD MIC50遠(yuǎn)較甲硝唑和萬古霉素低。此外本品對NAPI/BI/027突變株的MIC90與非突變株相同,其活性代謝物OP-1118與原藥具有相似抗菌譜,但MIC值高于原藥4~6倍[19-23]。
2)對腸道正常菌群影響 本品對人腸道正常菌群遠(yuǎn)較萬古霉素為低。比較了本品與萬古霉素連續(xù)治療10 d對類桿菌效應(yīng),本品對類桿菌菌落計數(shù)無明顯影響,而萬古霉素125 mg 4次/日口服顯著減少菌落數(shù),第一天為7.4±2.7/g糞便,而治療第十天僅為3.6±1.9/g糞便(P<0.03)[24]。
3)蛋白對抗菌活力影響 用肉湯稀釋法評估了蛋白對CD抗菌活性影響,加入糞便樣物質(zhì),非達(dá)霉素MIC值從1 ?g/ml升至4 ?g/ml,代謝物OP-1118從0.25 ?g/ml升至2 ?g/ml;但在治療劑量下,糞便中非達(dá)霉素及其代謝物濃度高于MIC值,提示蛋白結(jié)合不影響此二者抗菌活性。
4)抗生素后效應(yīng)(post antibiotic effect,PAE)作用 體外研究顯示非達(dá)霉素對CD具有抗生素后效應(yīng),時間可從5.5~12.5 h,遠(yuǎn)大于萬古霉素(0~1.5 h),這種PAE在非達(dá)霉素臨床應(yīng)用中起作用。
5)介質(zhì)環(huán)境影響 對非達(dá)霉素在不同陽離子情況下進行了評估[25],在pH 6~8 及不同商售培養(yǎng)基pH 6.2~7.0 條件下,本品抗菌活性無明顯變化;但在pH 7.9 時,本品對CD 的MIC 值增高8倍。故臨床應(yīng)用應(yīng)關(guān)注腸道pH條件。
6)耐藥性 尚未見本品體內(nèi)耐藥報道,也未見本品與其它大環(huán)內(nèi)酯類抗生素、β-內(nèi)酰胺類、林可霉素、氨基糖苷類、利福平等抗菌藥物交叉耐藥報道。體外應(yīng)用連續(xù)傳代法(serial passage method),對本品存在下CD自發(fā)突變頻率進行了研究[21],結(jié)果顯示CD自發(fā)突變頻率僅為<3×10-8。對本品耐藥的CD克隆株研究表明[26],耐藥是由于RNA多聚酶β亞單位點突變所致。由此,非達(dá)霉素對 CD的作用點σ亞單位和β亞單位具有非常相似的特性。雖然CD對本品的突變頻率低,但在臨床應(yīng)用仍需關(guān)注耐藥危險性。
2 藥動學(xué)
通過Ⅰ期志愿者和Ⅱ期CDI患者的藥動學(xué)研究,得知本品的人體內(nèi)藥動學(xué)處置如下[3,26-27]。
2.1 吸收
本品口服吸收微量,健康志愿者以高脂肪飲食與本品200 mg同服,可使吸收下降,與禁食狀態(tài)相比,本品及代謝物OP-1118的Cmax濃度分別下降21.5%和33.4%,但藥時曲線下面積(AUC)無變化?,F(xiàn)知此改變不具有臨床意義。故本品可空腹服用或與食物同服。
2.1.1 峰濃
正常志愿者單次口服本品200 mg后,非達(dá)霉素及代謝物OP-1118峰濃分別為5.2±2.1 ng/ml和12.0±6.06 ng/ml。
1)疾病狀態(tài)影響 CD感染伴腹瀉患者多次給藥,10 d后非達(dá)霉素與代謝物OP-1118峰濃與健康志愿者相比增加2~6倍,分別為2~179 ng/ml和10~829 ng/ml;第十天對非達(dá)霉素濃度與第一天相比,無明顯變化,而代謝物OP-1118則較第一天增加50%~80%。
2)性別影響 女性與男性均服用200 mg/次,2次/日,連續(xù)服用10 d后,非達(dá)霉素及代謝物OP-1118濃度無顯著性差異。
3)年齡影響 65歲以上老年人服用200 mg/次,2次/日,連續(xù)服用10 d后,非達(dá)霉素及代謝物OP-1118平均血漿濃度與中位值增高2~4倍,但不具有臨床意義,故無需劑量調(diào)整。
4)腎功能影響 重度腎功能損害患者,在多次給藥后,未見原藥與代謝物OP-1118血漿濃度變化,這與本品主要經(jīng)糞便排出體外相關(guān),故腎功能不全者,也無需調(diào)整劑量。
5)達(dá)峰時間 本品口服后,平均達(dá)峰時間為2 h(范圍1~5 h),原藥與代謝物達(dá)峰時間相似。
2.2 分布
主要分布于糞便中,連續(xù)10 d給藥后,糞便中原藥與代謝物OP-1118濃度分別可達(dá)639~2 710 ?g/g和213~1 210 ?g/g,其分布特性符合本品藥效學(xué)要求。
2.3 代謝
本品代謝主要由胃酸及腸微粒體酶水解生成活性代謝物OP-1118,而代謝物OP-1118比原藥易于吸收,故體循環(huán)中主要為OP-1118?,F(xiàn)知,在多次服藥后,大多患者(93.5%)的原藥血藥濃度均<20 ng/ml,而39%患者的OP-1118濃度>20 ng/ml[27]。
2.4 消除
1)腎消除 在多次給藥后,尿液中僅見0.59%原藥,故腎功不全患者服用本品,無需調(diào)整劑量。
2)糞便中消除 健康志愿者單次服用200 mg或300 mg后,所給劑量90%以上經(jīng)糞便以原藥及代謝物OP-1118形式清除。
3)消除半衰期 健康志愿者單次服用200 mg后,原藥消除半衰期為11.7±4.8 h,代謝物OP-1118則為11.2±3.01 h,二者半衰期基本相似。無腸梗阻癥狀患者,可采用臨床每日二次給藥方案,本品不產(chǎn)生藥物蓄積。
3 藥效學(xué)
Louie 等[27]在Ⅱ期臨床研究中比較348例三個劑量組(50、100、200 mg/次,2次/日,10 d為一個療程)療效(觀察標(biāo)準(zhǔn)與Ⅲ期相同)(表1)。
從Ⅱ期研究結(jié)果顯示,本品臨床療效以400 mg/d(200 mg/次,2次/日)最佳,進一步以此劑量進行了Ⅲ期評價。
在Ⅲ期臨床中,Louie等[28-29]對67個中心共629例進行了本品與萬古霉素隨機、雙盲、平行、對照研究,所有入組者(表2)符合以下標(biāo)準(zhǔn):年齡>16歲,腹瀉(24小時內(nèi)有三次不成型排便),CD毒素A或B以及AB均陽性。雖在24 h內(nèi)曾接受萬古霉素或甲硝唑四個劑量患者仍可入選。有下列情況患者予以剔除:威脅生命或暴發(fā)性CDI和CDI毒素引起的巨結(jié)腸癥。三個月內(nèi)超過一次以上CDI再發(fā)患者以及曾選用非達(dá)霉素等患者。所有受試者隨機服用非達(dá)霉素200 mg/次,2次/日或萬古霉素125 mg/次,4次/日連服10 d,以臨床治愈作為主要觀察指標(biāo),以再發(fā)率和完全緩解作為次要觀察指標(biāo),具體標(biāo)準(zhǔn)及結(jié)果分別見表3和表4。
此外,Crook 等[28]收集的100個中心研究結(jié)果與Louie報道結(jié)果相似。
4 安全性
在Ⅰ期、Ⅱ期和Ⅲ期臨床試驗中對本品安全性進行了廣泛評價,特別是Ⅲ期中與萬古霉素進行了橫向評價,在Ⅰ期和Ⅱ期中未見重要生命體征及實驗室檢查異常,僅見頭痛、鼻漏及血清淀粉酶和脂酶升高各一例,且與藥物相關(guān)性尚存疑。
在Ⅲ期臨床試驗中對本品不良事件進行了評估,并與萬古霉素作了比較,二組最常見不良反應(yīng)均為消化道不適,分別為25%與22.3%。嚴(yán)重不良事件分別為25%與24.1%,包括胃腸道反應(yīng)(4.3%與3.4%)、感染(7%與9.3%),此外尚有低血鉀、血鈉、血磷癥以及雙相血糖事件。在兩個Ⅲ期臨床試驗中觀察到非達(dá)霉素消化道出血頻率高于萬古霉素(3.5%與1.7%)包括腹瀉性出血和胃腸道出血。非達(dá)霉素周圍血象白細(xì)胞計數(shù)下降也高于萬古霉素(23例/564與11/583例)[28-30]。
從上述結(jié)果顯示本品具有高安全性,這可能與本品藥動學(xué)特征吸收少有關(guān)。
5 藥物相互作用
雖非達(dá)霉素及其代謝物OP-1118是細(xì)胞色素P450(cytochrome P450,CYP)弱抑制劑,但現(xiàn)證實本品與CYP底物華法令、奧美拉唑、咪達(dá)唑侖等合用時對這些CYP底物無動力學(xué)改變。
此外,非達(dá)霉素是P-糖蛋白底物,也是其抑制劑,而其代謝物OP-1118是P-糖蛋白底物。故與P-糖蛋白抑制劑環(huán)孢素合用時,有潛在相互作用。現(xiàn)知,在服用非達(dá)霉素前一小時內(nèi)使用環(huán)孢素可使非達(dá)霉素和代謝物OP-1118的Cmax升高。前者從5.20 ng/ml增至26.9 ng/ml,后者從12 ng/ml增至132 ng/ml。AUC分別增高1.9倍和4.1倍。
6 劑量與給藥方案
基于Ⅲ期臨床研究,美國FDA批準(zhǔn)本品劑量為200 mg/次,2次/日,十天一個療程,可空腹或與食物一起服用。雖未在肝腎功能不全者中進行臨床研究,但由于本品藥動學(xué)特點,估測肝損功能不全患者應(yīng)用本品時無需進行劑量調(diào)整[29]。
7 結(jié)論
雖SHEA和IDSA推薦甲硝唑和萬古霉素作為CDI基本治療,但近年CD突變株出現(xiàn)及臨床甲硝唑治療失敗率增加[31-32],萬古霉素臨床應(yīng)用增多,會使VRE(vancomycin resistant Enterococcus)出現(xiàn)的機會增大[10],因此,非達(dá)霉素作為窄譜殺菌劑是治療CDI的另一種令人感興趣的治療方法。且本品更具有低再發(fā)率,治療輕至中度嚴(yán)重CDI與萬古霉素具有同等療效。結(jié)合經(jīng)濟學(xué)評價非達(dá)霉素可作為CDI基本治療藥物。
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[19] Credito KL, Appelbaum PC. Activity of OPT-80, a novel macrocycle, compared with those of eight other agents against selected anaerobic species [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2004, 48(11): 2280-2282.
[20] Finegold SM, Molitoris D, Vaisanen ML, et al. In vitro activities of OPT-80 and comparator drugs against intestinal bacteria [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2004, 48(12): 4898-4902.
[21] Swanson RN, Hardy DJ, Shipkowitz NL, et al. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of tiacumicins B and C against Clostridium difficile [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 1991, 35(6): 1108-1111.
[22] Citron DM, Babakhani F, Goldstein EJ, et al. Typing and susceptibility of bacterial isolates from the fidaxomicin (OPT-80) phaseⅡ study for C. difficile infection [J]. Anaerobe, 2009, 15(6): 234-236.
[23] Hecht DW, Galang MA, Sambol SP, et al. In vitro activities of 15 antimicrobial agents against 110 toxigenic Clostridium difficile clinical isolates collected from 1983 to 2004 [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2007, 51(8): 2716-2719.
[24] Louie TJ, Emery J, Krulicki W, et al. OPT-80 eliminates Clostridium difficile and is sparing of Bacteroides species during treatment of C. difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 261-263.
[25] Babakhani F, Seddon J, Robert N, et al. Effects of inoculum, pH, and cations on the in vivo activity of fidaxomicin (OPT-80, PAR-101) against Clostridium difficile [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2010, 54(6): 2674-2676.
[26] Gualtieri M, Villain-Guillot P, Latouche J, et al. Mutation in the Bacillus subtilis RNA polymerase beta subunit confers resistance to lipiarmycin [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2006, 50(1): 401-402.
[27] Louie T, Miller M, Donskey C, et al. Clinical outcomes, safety, and pharmacokinetics of OPT-80 in a phase 2 trial with patients with Clostridium difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 223-228.
[28] Crook DW, Walker AS, Kean Y, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection: meta-analysis of pivotal randomized controlled trials[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2012, 55 (Suppl 2): S93-103.
[29] Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection [J]. N Engl J Med, 2011, 364(5): 422-431.
[30] Shue YK, Sears PS, Shangle S, et al. Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetic studies of OPT-80 in healthy volunteers following single and multiple oral doses [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2008, 52(4): 1391-1395.
[31] Musher DM, Aslam S, Logan N, et al. Relatively poor outcome after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis with metronidazole [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.
[32] Pepin J, Alary ME, Valiquette L, et al. Increasing risk of relapse after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis in Quebec, Canada [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.
(收稿日期:2013-10-09)
[23] Hecht DW, Galang MA, Sambol SP, et al. In vitro activities of 15 antimicrobial agents against 110 toxigenic Clostridium difficile clinical isolates collected from 1983 to 2004 [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2007, 51(8): 2716-2719.
[24] Louie TJ, Emery J, Krulicki W, et al. OPT-80 eliminates Clostridium difficile and is sparing of Bacteroides species during treatment of C. difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 261-263.
[25] Babakhani F, Seddon J, Robert N, et al. Effects of inoculum, pH, and cations on the in vivo activity of fidaxomicin (OPT-80, PAR-101) against Clostridium difficile [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2010, 54(6): 2674-2676.
[26] Gualtieri M, Villain-Guillot P, Latouche J, et al. Mutation in the Bacillus subtilis RNA polymerase beta subunit confers resistance to lipiarmycin [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2006, 50(1): 401-402.
[27] Louie T, Miller M, Donskey C, et al. Clinical outcomes, safety, and pharmacokinetics of OPT-80 in a phase 2 trial with patients with Clostridium difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 223-228.
[28] Crook DW, Walker AS, Kean Y, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection: meta-analysis of pivotal randomized controlled trials[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2012, 55 (Suppl 2): S93-103.
[29] Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection [J]. N Engl J Med, 2011, 364(5): 422-431.
[30] Shue YK, Sears PS, Shangle S, et al. Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetic studies of OPT-80 in healthy volunteers following single and multiple oral doses [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2008, 52(4): 1391-1395.
[31] Musher DM, Aslam S, Logan N, et al. Relatively poor outcome after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis with metronidazole [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.
[32] Pepin J, Alary ME, Valiquette L, et al. Increasing risk of relapse after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis in Quebec, Canada [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.
(收稿日期:2013-10-09)
[23] Hecht DW, Galang MA, Sambol SP, et al. In vitro activities of 15 antimicrobial agents against 110 toxigenic Clostridium difficile clinical isolates collected from 1983 to 2004 [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2007, 51(8): 2716-2719.
[24] Louie TJ, Emery J, Krulicki W, et al. OPT-80 eliminates Clostridium difficile and is sparing of Bacteroides species during treatment of C. difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 261-263.
[25] Babakhani F, Seddon J, Robert N, et al. Effects of inoculum, pH, and cations on the in vivo activity of fidaxomicin (OPT-80, PAR-101) against Clostridium difficile [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2010, 54(6): 2674-2676.
[26] Gualtieri M, Villain-Guillot P, Latouche J, et al. Mutation in the Bacillus subtilis RNA polymerase beta subunit confers resistance to lipiarmycin [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2006, 50(1): 401-402.
[27] Louie T, Miller M, Donskey C, et al. Clinical outcomes, safety, and pharmacokinetics of OPT-80 in a phase 2 trial with patients with Clostridium difficile infection [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53(1): 223-228.
[28] Crook DW, Walker AS, Kean Y, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection: meta-analysis of pivotal randomized controlled trials[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2012, 55 (Suppl 2): S93-103.
[29] Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection [J]. N Engl J Med, 2011, 364(5): 422-431.
[30] Shue YK, Sears PS, Shangle S, et al. Safety, tolerance, and pharmacokinetic studies of OPT-80 in healthy volunteers following single and multiple oral doses [J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2008, 52(4): 1391-1395.
[31] Musher DM, Aslam S, Logan N, et al. Relatively poor outcome after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis with metronidazole [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.
[32] Pepin J, Alary ME, Valiquette L, et al. Increasing risk of relapse after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis in Quebec, Canada [J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2005, 40(11): 1586-1590.
(收稿日期:2013-10-09)