劉亞麗,徐英春
萬古霉素是治療甲氧西林耐藥金葡菌(MRSA)感染的有效藥物,也是治療該菌感染的最后選擇,目前該藥已在臨床上廣泛使用。雖然萬古霉素耐藥金葡菌(VRSA)在全球的檢出率很低,但萬古霉素低水平耐藥的金葡菌,包括異質(zhì)性萬古霉素中介金葡菌(hVISA)和萬古霉素中介金葡菌(VISA)卻在多個國家和地區(qū)廣泛流行。以改良菌群譜型分析-曲線下面積法(PAP-AUC)作為檢測hVISA的金標準,美國hVISA 的檢出率為0.3%~15.0%[1-7],澳大利亞25.0%~37.6%[8-9],日本10.0%[10],中國9.5%~13.1%[11-12],加拿大5.3%[13],愛爾蘭2.3%[14]等。目前研究表明,與萬古霉素敏感金葡菌(VSSA)相比,hVISA導(dǎo)致萬古霉素治療失敗的概率是前者的2.37倍(95%CI,1.53~3.67),且住院時間明顯延長,住院費用增加[15]?,F(xiàn)就hVISA的流行病學(xué)特點、檢測方法、異質(zhì)性耐藥機制及其導(dǎo)致感染的治療進行簡要介紹,為臨床醫(yī)師及微生物工作者提供參考。
2004年,Howe等[16]對來自11個國家的101株hVISA/VISA的基因型進行分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)所有菌株均屬于agrⅠ型或agrⅡ型,且以agrⅠ型為主(7/9 VISA,57/92 hVISA);同時,hVISA 在 CC5、CC8、CC22、CC30和CC45的5個克隆復(fù)合體中均有發(fā)現(xiàn),而VISA僅存在于CC5和CC8 2個克隆復(fù)合體中。但近期美國的2項研究表明,hVISA/VISA主要存在于agrⅡ型中[17-18];來自澳大利亞的數(shù)據(jù)顯示,46株 hVISA 均屬于 ST239-MRSASCCmecⅢ克隆[19]。我國 Sun等[11]對26株 hVISA臨床分離株的基因型分析發(fā)現(xiàn),hVISA以agrⅠ-SCCmecⅢ-ST239型為主,其次是agrⅡ-SCCmecⅡ-ST5;陳宏斌等[12]分離的30株hVISA 中,agrⅡ-SCCmecⅡ最多,其次是agrⅠ-SCCmecⅢ。這些數(shù)據(jù)表明,并非所有的MRSA均可能發(fā)展成hVISA。hVISA的流行可能與其遺傳背景以及不同地域的流行病學(xué)特點相關(guān),如該地MRSA的分離率、耐藥譜型、流行克隆株的基因型特點等。
此外,hVISA也可存在于甲氧西林敏感金葡菌(MSSA)中,法國(hVISA,7/2 300)[20]和美國(hVISA,3/121)[3]均有報道。這說明在常規(guī)檢測中,不能僅依靠體外藥敏和菌株特點,還要結(jié)合臨床信息來判斷,如患者是否存在嚴重基礎(chǔ)疾病、入住ICU、萬古霉素低劑量治療、糖肽類治療無效等情況,當上述情況存在時,即使體外藥敏試驗結(jié)果是敏感的,也應(yīng)高度關(guān)注hVISA的存在。
由于hVISA體外藥敏常顯示敏感(MIC≤2 mg/L),僅在子代(10-5~10-6)中含有少量對萬古霉素中介的 (MIC≥4 mg/L)的亞群,故給常規(guī)檢測帶來很大困難。研究表明,在萬古霉素體外敏感的狀態(tài)下,隨著MIC值的增加,hVISA的檢出率也逐漸上升,并在萬古霉素 MIC值為2 mg/L時,hVISA 的分離率最高[1,19,21]。van Hal等[19]利用微量肉湯稀釋法,對分離的46株hVISA的萬古霉素MIC值分布進行分析,發(fā)現(xiàn) MIC值≤0.5、1.0、1.5、2.0、4 mg/L時,上述hVISA 所占比率分別為2.2%、8.7%、6.5%、82.6%和0。這表明,對 MIC值處于敏感臨界的菌株應(yīng)給予高度關(guān)注,尤其是患者存在嚴重的基礎(chǔ)疾病、入住ICU、MRSA定植或反復(fù)感染、萬古霉素劑量偏低、糖肽類治療無效,應(yīng)高度懷疑存在hVISA。
目前,檢測hVISA的方法有多種,PAP-AUC是檢測hVISA的金標準,該方法以Mu3作為參考菌株,利用Graphpad Prism軟件,繪制菌落數(shù)對數(shù)值對萬古霉素濃度的曲線,計算曲線下面積(AUC),并將AUC待測菌株/Mu3介于0.9~1.3判定為hVISA。由于該方法費時費力、且需要特殊儀器螺旋涂布儀,故很難在常規(guī)實驗室進行。宏量E試驗(Macromethod E-test,MET)法,與標準 E 試驗法不同的是,需配制2.0麥氏濁度單位的菌懸液,取200μL菌懸液均勻涂布于腦心浸液(BHI)瓊脂平皿上,35℃孵育48 h后觀察結(jié)果。如萬古霉素和替考拉寧的 MIC均≥8 mg/L或替考拉寧 MIC≥12 mg/L則可判斷為hVISA。國外數(shù)據(jù)顯示,MET法的靈敏度和特異度分別為44.0%~98.5%和89%~98%[4,13,22];我國數(shù)據(jù)顯示,MET 法的靈敏度和特異度分別為48.1%~70.4%和48%~85%,稍低于國外數(shù)據(jù)[11]。由于MET法操作簡單,靈敏度和特異度相對較高,可用于常規(guī)疑似菌株的初篩,但因價格昂貴,不適合大規(guī)模篩查。E試驗GRD(glycopeptide resistance detection)是一種新的hVISA檢測方法。其與MET法的區(qū)別在于需要使用MHB配制0.5麥氏濁度的菌懸液,并將菌液均勻涂布于含5%羊血或馬血的MHA平皿上,使用兩端分別含有替考拉寧和萬古霉素的特制E試驗條,在24 h和48 h分別讀取結(jié)果。判定標準為MIC替考拉寧≥8 mg/L或 MIC萬古霉素≥8 mg/L,同時標準 E 試驗 MIC萬古霉素<4 mg/L 時,則判斷為hVISA。研究數(shù)據(jù)顯示,24 h讀取結(jié)果的敏感度和特異度分別為43% ~77% 和 98% ~100%[4,22],48 h讀取結(jié)果的敏感度和特異度分別為57%~100%和 36% ~96%[4,13,22]。瓊脂稀釋法是美國CDC與臨床和實驗室標準化協(xié)會推薦的篩選方法[23],配制0.5麥氏濁度的菌懸液,取10μL接種至含萬古霉素6 mg/L的BHI瓊脂(BHIA6V)上,35℃培養(yǎng),24 h和48 h時各觀察1次,如有≥2個菌落生長則判斷為陽性;此外,也可采用含5 mg/L替考拉寧的BHI瓊脂(BHIA5T)或 MHA(MHA5T)平皿進行篩選,該方法的敏感性較BHIA6V高,但特異性差,由于成本低、無需特殊儀器,故適合大規(guī)模初篩。Sun等[11]的研究結(jié)果顯示,BHIA5T和BHIA6V的敏感度分別為88.9%和3.7%,特異度分別為17.3%和98.8%。
除上述方法外,采用含4 mg/L萬古霉素且加入16 g/L酪蛋白的BHI瓊脂進行hVISA的篩選,48 h后觀察結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn),該方法的靈敏度和特異度分別為91%和94%[4];此外,van Hal等[8]報道,利用微量肉湯稀釋法測定體外萬古霉素的MIC值,如將MIC≥2 mg/L作為判定折點篩選hVISA,其靈敏度、特異度、陽性預(yù)測值、陰性預(yù)測值、準確度分別為82%、97%、97%、80%和95%。這些數(shù)據(jù)說明,不同研究所得出的結(jié)果不同,由于方法不統(tǒng)一,很難進行比較和評價;但不同國家或地區(qū)以PAP-AUC作為金標準,可對不同方法的靈敏度、特異度、準確度、陽性預(yù)測值、陰性預(yù)測值進行分析比較,結(jié)合當?shù)鼐甑牧餍胁W(xué)特點,選擇適當?shù)臋z測方法。
目前,hVISA的耐藥機制仍不清楚。表型研究的結(jié)果提示,細胞壁增厚、肽聚糖交聯(lián)減少、青霉素結(jié)合蛋白改變、自溶活性降低、細胞壁翻轉(zhuǎn)率增加、毒力降低、生長率下降、革蘭染色變淺、脲酶活性增強等可能與對萬古霉素的敏感性下降有關(guān)[22]。利用基因組及轉(zhuǎn)錄組學(xué)方法,已發(fā)現(xiàn)了多個與糖肽類耐藥相關(guān)的基因如pbpB、pbpD、ddh 、tcaA、msrA2、msrR、malR、lysC、graA、graB、graC、graD、graE、murZ、rsbU 等,這些基因表達的增高或降低,可直接或間接地影響對萬古霉素的敏感度[24-25]。此外,在 VSSA發(fā)展成hVISA、VISA 的過程中,幾個重要調(diào)控元件發(fā)生了點突變[vraS(I5 N )、graR (N197S)、rpoB (H481Y )、rpoB(A621E)]或缺失突變(walRK、clpP),并通過基因敲除和回補技術(shù)等證實了其在萬古霉素耐藥中發(fā)揮的重要作用[26-28];同時,其他一些重要的調(diào)控子,如Agr、SigB、SarA、Rot、MgrA等在金葡菌代謝、毒素分泌及萬古霉素耐藥中發(fā)揮重要的調(diào)控作用[3,29-31],它們可能形成復(fù)雜的調(diào)控網(wǎng)絡(luò),調(diào)控多種基因的表達。此外,利用蛋白質(zhì)組學(xué)方法已發(fā)現(xiàn)多個蛋白質(zhì)與萬古霉素的異質(zhì)性耐藥緊密相關(guān),如肽聚糖水解酶(LytM)、轉(zhuǎn)糖基酶樣蛋白(SceD)等,但具體機制仍需更深入研究。
雖然,常規(guī)體外藥敏顯示大部分hVISA對多種抗菌藥物(包括萬古霉素)敏感,但臨床治療結(jié)果并不樂觀。多項研究已證實,糖肽類治療常會失敗,部分hVISA可對達托霉素的敏感性降低[32-33]。目前還沒有研究證實,其他抗菌藥物或替代方案的療效優(yōu)于萬古霉素。故治療的藥物選擇仍是困擾臨床醫(yī)生的難題。2011年1月美國感染病學(xué)會成人與兒童MRSA感染治療指南[34]建議:對于萬古霉素 MIC≥2 mg/L菌株引起的感染,應(yīng)改用其他有效的藥物,如達托霉素、利奈唑胺、奎奴普?。_福普汀、甲氧芐啶-磺胺甲口惡唑以及特拉萬星等。對于萬古霉素治療失敗的持續(xù)性MRSA血流感染患者,應(yīng)尋找并清除可能存在的其他感染灶,進行引流或清創(chuàng);若達托霉素敏感,可給予大劑量達托霉素聯(lián)合其他藥物治療;如菌株對萬古霉素和達托霉素敏感性均降低,可選用奎奴普?。_福普汀、甲氧芐啶-磺胺甲口惡唑、利奈唑胺或特拉萬星進行治療。
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