張 巖
(河南科技大學 外國語學院,河南 洛陽 471000)
系統(tǒng)功能語言學認為語言具有概念、人際和語篇三大元功能。Halliday提出語法隱喻理論,他認為語法隱喻主要見之于概念功能和人際功能,因此將語法隱喻分為 概念隱喻和人際隱喻。Martin提出了語篇隱喻的概念,他認為語法隱喻通過展開一個語篇的主位結(jié)構和信息結(jié)構,成為組篇的工具。研究表明科技語篇中存在大量的語法隱喻,但對語法隱喻的研究多集中在語法隱喻的概念功能上,較少涉及其語篇功能。本文從概念隱喻和語篇隱喻的角度來論述科技語篇語法隱喻的語篇功能。
語篇功能是語言成分組織成為語篇的功能,主要通過三種方式體現(xiàn):主位系統(tǒng)、信息系統(tǒng)和銜接。英語小句由主位和述位構成。在主位系統(tǒng)中,主位先于述位出現(xiàn),主位是話語的出發(fā)點,圍繞主位的述位是信息的剩余部分。信息系統(tǒng)是已知信息與新信息相互作用構成信息單位的結(jié)構,每個信息單位由已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)過的或由語境可確定的成分即已知信息和言語活動中未出現(xiàn)或由語境難以確定的成分即新信息構成?!耙阎畔?新信息”是常見的信息單位結(jié)構。信息系統(tǒng)是一種語義結(jié)構形式,通過運用照應、省略、替代、連接等語法銜接和詞匯銜接等手段,把語篇中的語言成分聯(lián)成語義關系,因此銜接是一個語義概念。
在英語主位結(jié)構中主位總在最前面,一般來說,已知信息先于新信息出現(xiàn),信息中心位于信息單位的最后,但有時說話人為強調(diào)某個成分可把新信息作為講話的起點,因此新信息也可出現(xiàn)在已知信息前面。主位述位的順序和已知信息和新信息的順序之間并不存在絕對的一致性,它們完全是出于不同的角度。主位系統(tǒng)是從信息的角度基于說話人或作者的,而信息系統(tǒng)是從注意焦點的角度基于說話人或作者賦予給聽話人或讀者的角色的,兩個系統(tǒng)共同作用才產(chǎn)生銜接的連貫的語篇。
(一)概念語法隱喻
Bahktin(1981)認為所有的語篇都有互文性(intertextuality),即所有的語篇都在不同程度上包容其他實際的或可能的語篇,任何說話者都是某種程度上的回應者,他永遠不可能是第一個說話的人,作者在構筑語篇時預設他自己和其他人以前說過的言語的存在,因而在作者與前人之間形成一種內(nèi)在的對話。同時語篇也預設理想的讀者的存在,作者希望真正的讀者通過理想的讀者理解語篇。
互文性涉及引用作者或他人曾經(jīng)寫過關于某個領域的論文和著作。這里我們關注的主要限于文章本身即篇際互文性。篇際互文性指的是語篇的后面部分指涉前面已經(jīng)論述過的某些內(nèi)容,主要通過重復和同義完成這一過程。這里所說的重復和同義是指聯(lián)系前后某些內(nèi)容的詞匯銜接。語法隱喻構成一種通過名詞化實現(xiàn)重復和同義關系的特殊的詞匯銜接。
科技語篇主要依靠連貫的論點以及精確的邏輯的推論和演繹來展開語篇。語法隱喻使得觀察和實驗凝集為重新識解的經(jīng)驗,通過語法表達出來,從而作為進一步發(fā)展論點、進行推論的出發(fā)點。主位是已知論點的集合,打包論點讓其成為一個小句的主位的唯一途徑就是把它變?yōu)槊~詞組。名詞通常指的是“事物”。通過名詞化,過程、性質(zhì)可被事物化、被概述為“事物”,從而作為下一小句的出發(fā)點、另一過程的參加者,而且名詞化由于略去了執(zhí)行者而增加了客觀性,這與科學的意識形態(tài)相一致。通常我們以小句的形式被告知某物,由于進一步推論的需要,過程或性質(zhì)被隱喻為名詞。Thompson認為名詞化的一個重要功能就在于其概述力,因此名詞化具有推論的功能。例如:
In the case-control study, SIDS was significantly associated with sleeping in the prone position, as compared with other positions… The strength of this association was increased among infants who slept on natural-fiber mattresses……
在該例中,述位部分中的新信息“was significantly associated……”被打包為名詞詞組“the strength of this association”,作為下一小句的主位。第二個小句中的主位變成了推論中出發(fā)點的已知信息。通過語法隱喻而不是通過一個字一個字的重復實現(xiàn)了語篇的連貫和銜接。
Guillén Galve給出一個某個語篇中包括三種表達的例子來闡釋通過語法隱喻實現(xiàn)的篇際互文性。
1、The results of these experiments suggest that when nerve fascicles are impaled by commercially available injection needles (of similar diameter), lesions occur less frequently, are less severe and are repaired more rapidlyif they are induced by an LB needle compared with an SB needle.
2、The results of all three experiments suggested that,should a nerve fascicle become accidentally impaledduring regional anaesthesia, the lesions induced by short bevelled needles are more severe, more frequent and take longerto repair than those induced by long bevelled needles.
3、In conclusion, this study provides evidence from several different experiments which show that, should accidental nerve fascicle penetration occur, then the frequency, severity and time course of intrafascicular injury would be greater when SB, as opposed to LB, needles were used.
在第一種表達中從以物質(zhì)過程實現(xiàn)的從屬句得知“when nerve fascicles are impaled by commercially available injection needles (of similar diameter), lesions occur less frequently, are less severe and are repaired more rapidly if they are induced by an LB needle compared with an SB needle”,這是一致式的表達。第二種表達是類似于第一種的識解。第三種表達是隱喻式的表達,再現(xiàn)了前面已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)的語篇,實現(xiàn)了互文性。名詞詞組“accidental nerve fascicle penetration”和名詞詞組“the frequency, severity and time course of intrafascicular injury”代替第一種和第二種表達中出現(xiàn)的動詞“impale”,形容詞“severe”,副詞“accidentally”、“frequently” 和 “rapidly” 來實現(xiàn)語篇的連貫和銜接。與第一種和第二種表達相比,條件句“should accidental nerve fascicle penetration occur, then the frequency, severity and time course of intrafascicular injury would be greater”中的主句在結(jié)構上簡單些。
(二)語篇語法隱喻
Martin提出的語篇語法隱喻的概念無疑與語篇功能相關。
首先,為了支持命題而陳列一些論據(jù),一些名詞作為元信息用來組織語篇,在現(xiàn)實中它們并沒有確切的相應的實體。例如:
Human blood serves the body in three important ways.First, blood carries substances needed to maintain and repair the body tissues. In this way, blood serves as a provider.Second, blood also serves as a disposer, since it carries wastes and gases away from the tissues of the body. In addition, blood acts as a defender. The white corpuscles in the blood-stream constantly guard against and try to destroy bacteria and other agents that threaten the body’s welfare.
名詞“ways”不指代現(xiàn)實中的任何實體。從語篇來看,它指的是用來支持小句中所表達的命題“human blood serves the body”的并列的一些論據(jù)。
第二,指稱詞如“this”、“that”、“these”、“those”和“it”并不指代任何實際的物或人,而是表示對事實、動作和語篇的確實性表達。例如:
It will be long time before any landing on Mars can be attempted. This will long be possible when scientists have learned a lot more about the atmosphere that surrounds the planet.
代詞“this”預設了一種宏觀現(xiàn)象——“l(fā)anding on Mars”這一事實。
第三,語篇中的內(nèi)在連接詞作為銜接鏈也是一種語法隱喻。例如:
To begin with one must consider the naming or designation of real numbers as these are the assumed connection between theory and experiment. That is, in quantum mechanics at least, all predictions of theory are real numbers.
非限定性動詞詞組“to beging with”并不是指開始做某事這一實際的動作。
另外,隱喻性主位和隱喻性信息也能實現(xiàn)語篇功能。如果下一小句的主位用來概述前一小句的述位、前一整句、前幾個句子、甚至一個段落,那么該主位就是隱喻性的主位,見下面一例。
When a solution any substance is separated from a solute-free solvent by a membrane that is freely permeable to solvent molecules, but not to molecules of the solute, the solvent tends to be drawn through the membrane into the solution, thus diluting it. Movement of the solvent across the membrane can be prevented by applying a certain hydrostatic pressure to the solution.
“Movement of the solvent across the membrane”是對前一小句信息的概括。它是該小句的出發(fā)點,因此它是主位,更確切地說是連接語篇不同部分的隱喻性主位。
隱喻性信息是語義凝集。例如:
Further, ex-situ SEM examination revealed the presence of dimpled failure in nanocrystalline Ni.
該小句中新信息的一致式是投射小句β“the presence of dimpled failure in nanocrystalline Ni”,它具有自己的新信息和已知信息。
α Further, ex-situ SEM examination revealed that
β dimpled failure in nanocrystalline Ni is present.
通過分析科技語篇中的概念語法隱喻和語篇語法隱喻,可以發(fā)現(xiàn)語法隱喻的語篇功能在于通過主位系統(tǒng)和信息系統(tǒng)以及隱喻地實現(xiàn)語篇的方式來建構具有邏輯性的銜接的連貫的語篇。
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