楊超富 譚國慶 徐展望
基金項目:國家自然科學(xué)基金面上項目(82174410);山東省自然科學(xué)基金資助項目(ZR2020KH011);山東省自然科學(xué)基金面上項目(ZR2020MH362);全國名老中醫(yī)專家傳承工作室建設(shè)項目(國中醫(yī)藥人教函[202275號])
引用本文:楊超富,譚國慶,徐展望.骨質(zhì)疏松中衰老相關(guān)分泌表型調(diào)控機(jī)制的研究進(jìn)展[J]. 中國全科醫(yī)學(xué),2024,27(29):3685-3695. DOI:10.12114/j.issn.1007-9572.2023.0721. [www.chinagp.net]
YANG C F,TAN G Q,XU Z W. Research progress on the regulation mechanism of aging-related secretory phenotype in osteoporosis[J]. Chinese General Practice,2024,27(29):3685-3695.
? Editorial Office of Chinese General Practice. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license.
【摘要】 衰老相關(guān)分泌表型(SASP)是細(xì)胞衰老的重要特征,在調(diào)控疾病微環(huán)境中具有重要作用。目前,對于SASP干預(yù)骨代謝、誘導(dǎo)骨流失的作用機(jī)制了解有限,因此,本文探討了在骨質(zhì)疏松模型中SASP的調(diào)控機(jī)制,并歸納總結(jié)了其調(diào)控特點:SASP在衰老骨細(xì)胞中充分表達(dá),以自分泌/旁分泌的方式將衰老效應(yīng)傳遞到間充質(zhì)干細(xì)胞,從而干預(yù)其成骨分化;SASP激活免疫細(xì)胞,并促進(jìn)其衰老,從而誘導(dǎo)炎性組織微環(huán)境的形成,加重骨流失;線粒體穩(wěn)態(tài)失調(diào)、病理性血糖升高、肥胖誘導(dǎo)的脂肪蓄積均會促進(jìn)SASP的表達(dá),從而擾亂微環(huán)境穩(wěn)態(tài),將衰老效應(yīng)傳遞到骨組織。所以,有必要深入了解SASP在骨質(zhì)疏松中的作用,為后續(xù)開發(fā)抗SASP療法治療骨質(zhì)疏松提供借鑒。
【關(guān)鍵詞】 骨質(zhì)疏松;衰老相關(guān)分泌表型;細(xì)胞衰老;代謝紊亂;免疫調(diào)節(jié)
【中圖分類號】 R 681 【文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼】 A DOI:10.12114/j.issn.1007-9572.2023.0721
Research Progress on the Regulation Mechanism of Senescence-associated Secretory Phenotype in Osteoporosis
YANG Chaofu1,TAN Guoqing2*,XU Zhanwang2
1.Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine,Jinan 250039,China
2.Spinal Department,Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine,Jinan 250013,China
*Corresponding author:TAN Guoqing,Associate chief physician/Associate professor;E-mail:yxkmt@hotmail.com
【Abstract】 Senescence-associated secretory phenotype(SASP) is an important feature of cellular senescence and plays an important role in regulating the disease microenvironment. At present,the role of SASP in intervening bone metabolism and inducing bone loss is very limited. Therefore,this paper discusses the regulatory mechanism of SASP in osteoporosis models and summarizes its regulatory characteristics:SASP is fully expressed in senescent bone cells and transmits aging effects to mesenchymal stem cells in an autocrine/paracrine manner,thereby interfering with osteogenic differentiation. SASP activates immune cells and promotes their aging,thus inducing the formation of inflammatory tissue microenvironment and aggravating bone loss. Mitochondrial homeostasis,pathologic hyperglycemia,and obesity-induced fat accumulation all promote SASP expression,thus disrupting microenvironmental homeostasis and transmitting aging effects to bone tissue. To sum up,understanding the role of SASP in osteoporosis lays a solid foundation for us to develop anti-SASP therapy for osteoporosis in the future.
【Key words】 Osteoporosis;Senescence-associated secretory phenotype;Cell senescence;Metabolic disorders;Immunomodulation
骨質(zhì)疏松癥是一種因骨密度下降導(dǎo)致骨折風(fēng)險增高的全身性代謝骨病。2021年,一項全國性、多中心的雙能X線吸收測定法(DXA)研究調(diào)查了中國40歲以上人群骨質(zhì)疏松癥的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化患病率,該項研究顯示:40歲及以上女性骨質(zhì)疏松癥的總體患病率為20.6%,男性為5.0%。絕經(jīng)后女性骨質(zhì)疏松癥患病率為32.1%,50歲及以上男性骨質(zhì)疏松癥患病率為6.9%[1]。雖然該結(jié)果與其他相關(guān)研究[2]均表明,女性比男性更容易患上骨質(zhì)疏松癥和隨后的骨折,但對于40歲及以上的男性來說,其椎體骨折發(fā)生率要高于女性。因此,對于不同性別的骨質(zhì)疏松癥患者來說,降低脆性骨折發(fā)生風(fēng)險,增強(qiáng)骨密度和骨穩(wěn)定性,是治療的重中之重。
衰老相關(guān)分泌表型(SASP)的概念最早由Jean-Philippe Copper于2008年提出,用于人類惡性腫瘤的研究。這項研究表明,衰老細(xì)胞可以通過分泌一些物質(zhì)促進(jìn)癌前細(xì)胞癌變,這些物質(zhì)統(tǒng)稱為SASP因子[3]。隨著不斷研究,SASP因子家族也在發(fā)展壯大;SASP由一系列促炎因子、趨化因子、生長因子和蛋白酶組成,是細(xì)胞衰老時體內(nèi)外多種因子刺激產(chǎn)生的,包括腫瘤壞死因子(TNF)-α、白介素(IL)-6、IL-1、IL-8、基質(zhì)金屬蛋白酶(MMP)、粒細(xì)胞集落刺激因子(G-CSF)等。而近年來SASP在調(diào)控疾病微環(huán)境中的作用越來越得到重視;SASP能影響細(xì)胞行為,并與細(xì)胞應(yīng)激性衰老、年齡相關(guān)老化有著千絲萬縷的聯(lián)系,而這種聯(lián)系很大程度上在于SASP可以激活免疫系統(tǒng),并促進(jìn)慢性炎癥的形成[4-5]。本文旨在利用SASP相關(guān)觀點闡述骨質(zhì)疏松的形成機(jī)制,并重點探討了骨骼老化如何驅(qū)動成骨能力降低、SASP如何激活免疫應(yīng)答以及代謝紊亂如何誘發(fā)SASP等重點問題。
本文文獻(xiàn)檢索策略:計算機(jī)檢索PubMed、Web of Science等數(shù)據(jù)庫,將檢索時間設(shè)定為建庫至2023年7月,檢索詞包括“osteoporosis”“senescence-associated secretory phenotype”“Bone loss”“cell aging”“metabolic disorders”等。納入標(biāo)準(zhǔn):內(nèi)容涉及以上關(guān)鍵詞的文獻(xiàn),優(yōu)先選擇高質(zhì)量期刊的文獻(xiàn)。排除標(biāo)準(zhǔn):文獻(xiàn)內(nèi)容與本文主題無關(guān)聯(lián)、文章質(zhì)量較差、無法獲得全文的文獻(xiàn)。
1 SASP:干預(yù)間充質(zhì)干細(xì)胞(MSC)成骨分化,調(diào)控骨質(zhì)疏松中組織的再生與修復(fù)
對于骨質(zhì)疏松癥患者的監(jiān)管,基于SASP的觀點認(rèn)為:年齡相關(guān)的骨流失只是誘發(fā)骨形成減少的一個重要因素,但不是全部——持續(xù)的DNA損傷及創(chuàng)傷后機(jī)體的應(yīng)激反應(yīng)會導(dǎo)致大量SASP因子釋放,從而介導(dǎo)全身慢性無菌性炎癥,也會顯著影響骨代謝平衡,尤其是DNA損傷導(dǎo)致的永久性細(xì)胞周期停滯,會影響MSC活性以及增殖分化能力,這會對骨組織的再生與修復(fù)造成不可逆的損傷。因此,利用SASP調(diào)控MSC使之具有穩(wěn)定的增殖分化能力,是其成骨分化的基礎(chǔ)。
骨微環(huán)境中SASP因子的釋放是影響MSC活性的重要因素。一項研究表明,衰老的骨細(xì)胞通過旁分泌途徑改善骨髓間充質(zhì)干細(xì)胞(BMSCs)的分化潛力,其過程表現(xiàn)為:(1)應(yīng)激來源激活導(dǎo)致骨細(xì)胞核內(nèi)染色質(zhì)結(jié)構(gòu)的破壞、核完整性的破壞以及衰老相關(guān)異染色質(zhì)灶(SAHF)的形成,并導(dǎo)致γ-H2AX(一種DNA雙鏈斷裂標(biāo)志物)積累。(2)衰老骨細(xì)胞失去分裂能力并經(jīng)歷生長停滯,但其仍具有代謝活性并分泌SASP,導(dǎo)致IL-6、IL-1α、MMP-3和抵抗素等細(xì)胞因子積累。(3)BMSCs集落形成的能力被輕度破壞,成骨、成脂分化潛力降低。(4)經(jīng)體外誘導(dǎo)的BMSCs礦化結(jié)節(jié)形成能力顯著降低,脂肪形成能力顯著增加,導(dǎo)致骨骼老化與骨質(zhì)流失[6]。
骨穩(wěn)態(tài)的調(diào)節(jié)依賴MSC和造血干細(xì)胞(HSC)譜系之間的相互作用,且在衰老進(jìn)程中尤為明顯。在衰老過程中,這些細(xì)胞譜系發(fā)生劇烈變化,導(dǎo)致骨髓-淋巴造血和脂肪-成骨分化之間的不平衡[7-8],這導(dǎo)致骨髓生成和脂肪生成增加,而不是淋巴細(xì)胞生成和骨生成。SASP觀點認(rèn)為:衰老及數(shù)量減少的骨細(xì)胞會產(chǎn)生SASP因子,定向改變MSC譜系,導(dǎo)致破骨細(xì)胞增加。該過程具體表現(xiàn)為:(1)MSC、HSC多次傳代導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞衰老,并分泌SASP,越來越多的SASP因子(TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6等)參與循環(huán),骨髓成熟度增加,隨著基因表達(dá)產(chǎn)物增多,誘導(dǎo)衰老進(jìn)行性加重,導(dǎo)致骨細(xì)胞出現(xiàn)衰老表型甚至消融,引起數(shù)目減少。(2)骨細(xì)胞分泌SASP因子,反向作用MSC,下調(diào)成骨通路Wnt、Hedgehog、Notch表達(dá),并導(dǎo)致MSC成脂分化增加,脂肪積累。(3)循環(huán)性RANKL增加,循環(huán)性骨保護(hù)素(OPG)減少,RANKL/OPG比率下降、血清Ⅰ型c-端肽(CTX)分泌增加,破骨細(xì)胞生成增加,導(dǎo)致骨質(zhì)減少[9]。
諸如衰老的骨細(xì)胞等可以通過產(chǎn)生SASP來誘導(dǎo)MSC的衰老,因此要穩(wěn)定應(yīng)用MSC等再生醫(yī)學(xué)成果來改善骨質(zhì)流失、骨缺損的情況,則需要探討MSC傳代引發(fā)自身衰老導(dǎo)致的問題:許多研究證實,傳代晚期MSC會分泌SASP因子促進(jìn)早期MSC衰老,極大影響了利用干細(xì)胞移植促進(jìn)組織再生的策略[10-11]。且傳代晚期MSC的成骨、成脂分化潛力減弱,其穩(wěn)態(tài)的維持卻依賴于產(chǎn)生的SASP:含有脂質(zhì)代謝物的細(xì)胞外囊泡經(jīng)由衰老MSC產(chǎn)生、并具有誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞衰老和凋亡的毒性,反而加重了衰老進(jìn)程[12]。小尺寸的MSC具有更高的生長潛力和更低的衰老率[13],SASP通過自分泌/旁分泌正調(diào)節(jié)環(huán)路維持衰老進(jìn)程[14]。相關(guān)研究證實,臍帶血來源的間充質(zhì)干細(xì)胞(UCB-MSC)的小細(xì)胞具有更強(qiáng)的增殖能力,并且表現(xiàn)出更低的細(xì)胞衰老[15]:UCB-MSC小細(xì)胞多次傳代產(chǎn)生低劑量的以生長調(diào)節(jié)致癌基因α、IL-8為主的SASP因子,其與趨化因子受體2(CXCR2)結(jié)合加速細(xì)胞衰老進(jìn)程,并受Toll樣受體2(TLR2)和TLR5促進(jìn)、MSC小細(xì)胞分泌的si-RNA抑制。傳代晚期MSC細(xì)胞可通過旁分泌方式釋放IL-1α、IL-8等炎性因子以核因子(NF)-κB依賴的方式誘導(dǎo)早期MSC的衰老[16]。信號蛋白WNT3可通過抑制SASP因子的旁分泌途徑來中斷MSC的衰老進(jìn)程:并且WNT信號不是通過調(diào)節(jié)增殖和分化,而是通過保護(hù)細(xì)胞免受衰老的有害影響來支持MSC增殖和發(fā)育潛力[17]。MSC中轉(zhuǎn)錄因子TWIST1的沉默會增加衰老的發(fā)生,并導(dǎo)致其代謝異常,具體可表現(xiàn)為細(xì)胞耗氧率增加[18]。核層缺陷的發(fā)生是導(dǎo)致MSC早衰的原因之一:異常的前核纖層蛋白A通過MSC中的GATA4依賴性途徑觸發(fā)旁分泌衰老;GATA4的缺失通過早老蛋白或前核纖層蛋白A抑制MSC中的NF-κB和MCP-1消除了SASP依賴性衰老[19]。BMI-1是調(diào)節(jié)MSC自我更新的重要因子,衰老MSC細(xì)胞中SASP因子IL-1α升高,導(dǎo)致B細(xì)胞特異性莫洛尼鼠白血病病毒整合位點1 BMI-1表達(dá)降低,是MSC早衰的原因之一[20]。
mi-RNA被認(rèn)為是調(diào)控MSC行為的重要靶標(biāo),包封mi-RNA的小細(xì)胞外囊泡可作為無細(xì)胞療法應(yīng)用于骨再生與修復(fù)。SASP觀點認(rèn)為:mi-RNA借由外泌體囊泡運(yùn)輸,通過旁分泌途徑誘導(dǎo)MSC出現(xiàn)衰老表型。此外mi-RNA也可由MSC產(chǎn)生,通過調(diào)節(jié)特定的靶基因加速衰老進(jìn)程。miR-29c-3p可通過p53-p21和p16-pRB途徑靶向CNOT6促進(jìn)MSC衰老[21]。miR-31在老年人和骨質(zhì)疏松癥患者的血漿中升高,經(jīng)由衰老來源細(xì)胞的外泌體囊泡運(yùn)輸,并被MSC吸收,通過敲低其靶標(biāo)frizzed-3來抑制成骨分化[22]。miR-335可顯著調(diào)節(jié)MSC的增殖和分化,在體內(nèi)通過響應(yīng)誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞衰老的刺激而增加。miR-335的過表達(dá)借由外泌體囊泡運(yùn)輸作用于MSC,并降低其軟骨成骨潛力[23]。P65可以防止MSC產(chǎn)生SASP因子,并防止MSC之間的旁分泌衰老和通過小細(xì)胞外囊泡的促炎信息的傳遞[24]。
2 SASP:介導(dǎo)骨質(zhì)疏松中慢性炎癥反應(yīng),調(diào)控骨免疫網(wǎng)絡(luò)
骨質(zhì)疏松癥患者的骨微環(huán)境中含有大量促炎因子,可介導(dǎo)全身出現(xiàn)慢性炎性反應(yīng)。SASP觀點認(rèn)為:這種慢性炎癥狀態(tài)的建立會顯著加重細(xì)胞衰老,促炎因子是SASP的重要組成部分可由全身出現(xiàn)衰老表型的細(xì)胞釋放,而抵抗這種炎性狀態(tài)很大程度上依賴免疫系統(tǒng),尤其是免疫細(xì)胞的行為。該筆者以SASP因子作為橋梁,探討了免疫系統(tǒng)與骨代謝平衡之間的聯(lián)系以及衰老的免疫細(xì)胞出現(xiàn)的變化。建立骨免疫調(diào)控機(jī)制,探討如何通過免疫途徑改善骨質(zhì)疏松癥患者促炎狀態(tài)導(dǎo)致的骨
流失。
2.1 巨噬細(xì)胞極化與SASP
在衰老微環(huán)境中,巨噬細(xì)胞可以被多種細(xì)胞因子募集,包括SASP因子和NK細(xì)胞分泌組,由此產(chǎn)生免疫功能上的聯(lián)系。NK細(xì)胞通過與衰老細(xì)胞相互作用產(chǎn)生干擾素γ(IFN-γ)[25-26],招募巨噬細(xì)胞。此外,巨噬細(xì)胞也響應(yīng)SASP因子CCL2、CXCL1、CXCL16和IL-8等的募集[27],SASP相關(guān)的CCL2導(dǎo)致促炎性M1巨噬細(xì)胞的積累[28-29]。且隨著衰老進(jìn)行性加重,巨噬細(xì)胞表現(xiàn)出高炎性、低免疫活性狀態(tài),并出現(xiàn)衰老特征,其具體過程為:(1)巨噬細(xì)胞響應(yīng)年齡衰老,激活sCD163、CXCL10標(biāo)志的低水平先天性免疫途徑,導(dǎo)致功能失調(diào)[30]。(2)SASP因子釋放作用于巨噬細(xì)胞,導(dǎo)致TNF-α水平增加。(3)巨噬細(xì)胞出現(xiàn)衰老特征,并向M2型轉(zhuǎn)變,并下調(diào)IL-10水平、顯著降低吞噬能力[31]。
衰老細(xì)胞難以被巨噬細(xì)胞殺死,并且可抑制巨噬細(xì)胞通過旁分泌途徑識別SASP信號清除凋亡細(xì)胞殘體的能力。衰老細(xì)胞介導(dǎo)的胞吞作用抑制(SCES)會導(dǎo)致巨噬細(xì)胞功能癱瘓,其原因是CD47表達(dá)增強(qiáng),同時衰老細(xì)胞中CD47修飾酶QPCT/L增加。SCES通過干擾SIRPα-CD47-SHP-1軸或QPCT/L活性而抑制巨噬細(xì)胞能力。CD47和CD24表達(dá)增加是衰老細(xì)胞介導(dǎo)穩(wěn)態(tài)功能失調(diào)(例如胞吐作用)的組成部分,而胞吐作用必須有效發(fā)生才能維持組織穩(wěn)態(tài)并抑制自身免疫[32-35]。CD38是巨噬細(xì)胞功能調(diào)節(jié)的重要因子,可以調(diào)節(jié)細(xì)胞Ca2+代謝,具有抗破骨細(xì)胞生成的特性。CD38表達(dá)增強(qiáng)可以減少破骨細(xì)胞的數(shù)量和骨吸收;SASP因子可以誘導(dǎo)巨噬細(xì)胞中CD38表達(dá),這些M1樣巨噬細(xì)胞表達(dá)高水平的CD38并增強(qiáng)CD38依賴性NAD+酶活性,從而降低組織NAD+水平,而與衰老相關(guān)的NAD+水平的降低減少了SASP因子的產(chǎn)生,并減輕其病理作用[36-38]。并且,通過Ca2+、cAMP和TNF-α調(diào)節(jié)CD38的表達(dá),有助于將破骨細(xì)胞和成骨細(xì)胞的強(qiáng)代謝活性與其各自的骨吸收和骨重塑功能結(jié)合起來[39-40]。
2.2 多免疫細(xì)胞串?dāng)_的促炎網(wǎng)絡(luò)與SASP
為響應(yīng)SASP因子,多種免疫細(xì)胞集合串?dāng)_產(chǎn)生龐雜的促炎網(wǎng)絡(luò),極大影響著骨微環(huán)境的穩(wěn)定,往往單個免疫細(xì)胞集群沒有特殊作用,而多個免疫細(xì)胞集群卻受一種或幾種促炎因子調(diào)節(jié)。因此,探討多免疫細(xì)胞整體調(diào)控SASP網(wǎng)絡(luò)的能力尤為重要。
單核細(xì)胞作為優(yōu)良的細(xì)胞儲備,可以充當(dāng)破骨細(xì)胞、巨噬細(xì)胞、樹突狀細(xì)胞的前體[41],且可以產(chǎn)生趨化因子募集免疫細(xì)胞到骨重塑位點[42]。并且,單核細(xì)胞集群具有異質(zhì)性,根據(jù)CD14、CD16表達(dá)量的不同分為3個子集:經(jīng)典(CD14高/CD16-)、中間(CD14高/CD16+)和非經(jīng)典(CD14低/CD16+)。SASP因子誘導(dǎo)了非經(jīng)典子集CD16+表現(xiàn)出最明顯的促炎狀態(tài)、高miR-146a(一種負(fù)向調(diào)節(jié)TLR 通路的mi-RNA)表達(dá),這被認(rèn)為是單核細(xì)胞的衰老狀態(tài)。此外,NF-κB和 IL-1α可能是介導(dǎo)單核細(xì)胞出現(xiàn)衰老表型的關(guān)鍵靶點,血漿環(huán)境中TNF-α、IL-8水平升高則會導(dǎo)致這種衰老表型進(jìn)行性加深[43]。此外,又有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),SASP因子GDF-15可以誘導(dǎo)單核細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生更多CD16+表型,并且可以通過抑制其線粒體呼吸的能力,促進(jìn)衰老[44]。樹突狀細(xì)胞(DC細(xì)胞)在維持免疫穩(wěn)態(tài)中尤為重要,未成熟DC細(xì)胞可以誘導(dǎo)T細(xì)胞反應(yīng)缺失及調(diào)節(jié)性T細(xì)胞(Treg)反應(yīng)來促進(jìn)免疫耐受,從而終止炎癥[45],并減輕炎癥性的骨流失[46]。而SASP因子大量釋放導(dǎo)致的免疫微環(huán)境失調(diào)會刺激DC細(xì)胞成熟——成熟的DC細(xì)胞反而會抑制Treg反應(yīng),并產(chǎn)生免疫刺激性T細(xì)胞(例如Th17)反應(yīng)破壞骨質(zhì)[47]。不止于此,DC細(xì)胞介導(dǎo)的具有免疫效應(yīng)的外泌體囊泡也參與調(diào)控SASP:在響應(yīng)感染、促炎因子等信號后,DC細(xì)胞觸發(fā)炎性小體活化[48],并分泌含有IL-1B等促炎因子的外泌體[49],借由旁分泌途徑將衰老效應(yīng)傳遞給周圍細(xì)胞。自然殺傷細(xì)胞(NK細(xì)胞)可以通過生成M-CSF 和 RANKL誘導(dǎo)單核細(xì)胞分化為破骨細(xì)胞,從而加劇骨流失,而其本身的破骨細(xì)胞生成能力較差[50]。SASP觀點認(rèn)為:衰老細(xì)胞可分泌多種趨化因子(CXCL10等)通過與CXCR3結(jié)合增強(qiáng)NK細(xì)胞增殖遷移的能力,從而介導(dǎo)其對衰老細(xì)胞的清除[51]。并且CD158d的表達(dá)可以刺激靜息NK細(xì)胞,通過募集TRAF6激活 TAK1 來誘導(dǎo)NF-κB信號產(chǎn)生[52],從而導(dǎo)致NK細(xì)胞衰老并出現(xiàn)SASP[53],該分泌組可以顯著促進(jìn)血管生成。
T細(xì)胞可以響應(yīng)微環(huán)境刺激并做出其他免疫細(xì)胞比擬不了的精細(xì)化反應(yīng),在骨平衡中,不同亞群的T細(xì)胞有著極為重要的作用:T細(xì)胞功能的實現(xiàn)有賴于CD4+T和CD8+T細(xì)胞亞群的協(xié)同效應(yīng)。其中,由CD4+T分化來的Th17主要負(fù)責(zé)刺激破骨細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生,從而介導(dǎo)骨吸收過程[54-55],而Treg則能有效抑制骨吸收,二者的動態(tài)平衡是維持骨代謝穩(wěn)定的關(guān)鍵部分。不止于此,CD8+T細(xì)胞可通過分泌骨保護(hù)素(OPG)[56]和IFN-γ[57]抑制破骨細(xì)胞生成。SASP觀點認(rèn)為:兩種T細(xì)胞亞群會出現(xiàn)衰老表型,并接受SASP因子的調(diào)控,表現(xiàn)出代謝活躍的高促炎狀態(tài),并顯著加強(qiáng)骨流失。衰老CD4+T表現(xiàn)出PD-1+記憶表型——這些細(xì)胞在T細(xì)胞受體刺激下不會增殖,并產(chǎn)生大量SASP因子:例如骨橋蛋白、TNF-α和IL-6[58]等,這與C/EBPα表達(dá)上調(diào)有關(guān)。不同于衰老CD4+T,衰老的CD8+ T有自身獨特的SASP(以CD8+CD45RA+CD27-T子群最具異質(zhì)性):即產(chǎn)生更多的IL-6、IL-1β,并分泌蛋白酶(組織蛋白酶和絲氨酸蛋白酶,還包括ADAM家族和金屬蛋白酶),并受p38/MAPK調(diào)控[59]。
在B細(xì)胞中,只有記憶B細(xì)胞亞群會表達(dá)SASP,尤其是晚期/耗盡記憶B細(xì)胞(LM B細(xì)胞)。LM B細(xì)胞亞群通過自發(fā)激活A(yù)MPK活性,誘導(dǎo)p38/MAPK表達(dá),并導(dǎo)致促炎因子(TNF-α、IL-6、IL-8等)、炎性mi-RNA ( miR-155、16、93等)釋放,通過旁分泌途徑將衰老信號傳遞到周圍組織[54]。SASP介導(dǎo)的高促炎狀態(tài)刺激B細(xì)胞產(chǎn)生RANKL和粒細(xì)胞集落刺激因子(G-CSF)[60-61],從而激活了破骨細(xì)胞的生成,將B細(xì)胞促進(jìn)骨重塑的作用轉(zhuǎn)化為骨吸收[62]。具體機(jī)制見圖1。
3 SASP:調(diào)控骨質(zhì)疏松中多重代謝反應(yīng)
骨質(zhì)疏松癥患者的一個顯著特征是全身多種代謝失調(diào),SASP被認(rèn)為可以介導(dǎo)代謝失常后的二次損害,并與不良組織微環(huán)境的形成有關(guān)。在本文這一部分筆者探討了部分代謝失調(diào)與SASP的調(diào)控之間的關(guān)系,以及他們可能對骨代謝平衡造成的危害,以期構(gòu)建更為全面詳細(xì)的SASP控制網(wǎng)絡(luò)。
3.1 線粒體穩(wěn)態(tài)失調(diào):能量代謝異常、氧化應(yīng)激與SASP
線粒體穩(wěn)態(tài)對維持細(xì)胞能量供應(yīng)以及介導(dǎo)全身的抗氧化代謝極其重要,換言之,線粒體穩(wěn)態(tài)失調(diào)會導(dǎo)致能量代謝異常,并使細(xì)胞出現(xiàn)氧化應(yīng)激狀態(tài),這是觸發(fā)SASP的重要條件。
衰老會導(dǎo)致線粒體功能障礙(SAMD),并促進(jìn)SASP產(chǎn)生。沉默調(diào)節(jié)蛋白4(SIRT4)僅在線粒體中表達(dá),并受miR-15b負(fù)向調(diào)控。在衰老細(xì)胞中SIRT4表達(dá)上升,導(dǎo)致miR-15b生成受抑制。靶向抑制miR-15b增強(qiáng)SIRT4表達(dá)會促進(jìn)線粒體內(nèi)活性氧(ROS)生成,并降低線粒體膜電位——導(dǎo)致線粒體功能紊亂。并且,抑制miR-15b會導(dǎo)致SASP以SIRT4依賴的方式釋放,并阻止了正常水平下miR-15b以IRAK2依賴方式抑制SASP因子IL-6、IL-8的產(chǎn)生[63-64]。GRSF1 是維持線粒體氧化磷酸化所必需的蛋白,衰老細(xì)胞中的 GRSF1 水平因蛋白質(zhì)穩(wěn)定性降低而下降,GRSF1水平降低會導(dǎo)致線粒體應(yīng)激,并導(dǎo)致超氧化物生成增加、DNA損傷灶增加和細(xì)胞增殖減少,并導(dǎo)致細(xì)胞出現(xiàn)衰老表型:即衰老相關(guān)β-半乳糖苷酶 (SA-β-gal) 活性上升、SASP因子IL-6的產(chǎn)生和分泌[65]。值得一提的是,SAMD誘導(dǎo)的ROS可調(diào)控SASP的產(chǎn)生,但SASP不可以反向介導(dǎo)SAMD,SASP會以旁分泌的方式將衰老效應(yīng)傳遞到周圍更多組織中[66]。這表明,對于SAMD-ROS效應(yīng)誘導(dǎo)的衰老,無法通過抑制SASP因子的產(chǎn)生來控制,抗氧化以及增強(qiáng)線粒體活性的藥物可能是對抗該效應(yīng)的
良策。
衰老導(dǎo)致線粒體呼吸能力減弱,使細(xì)胞轉(zhuǎn)向主要依靠糖酵解來供能,并伴隨SASP產(chǎn)生。煙酰胺磷酸核糖基轉(zhuǎn)移酶(NAMPT)是NAD+挽救途徑的限速酶,在衰老過程中受HMGAs調(diào)控。HMGAs/NAMPT/NAD+信號軸通過增強(qiáng)糖酵解和線粒體呼吸調(diào)控SASP因子的釋放,該過程為:HMGAs/NAMPT通過NAD+介導(dǎo)的AMPK激酶抑制過程(p53介導(dǎo)的p38MAPK途徑抑制),增強(qiáng)NF-κb活性,從而促進(jìn)SASP產(chǎn)生[67]。令人振奮的是,衰老線粒體可通過產(chǎn)生線粒體衍生肽(MDP,包含:人體肽、MOTS-c、SHLP2、SHLP6等)在一定程度上維持線粒體功能水平:衰老線粒體中人體肽和MOTS-c水平升高,MOTS-c通過提升脂肪酸氧化水平來增強(qiáng)線粒體呼吸能力,而人體肽通過JAK/STAT途徑介導(dǎo)少量SASP促炎因子(主要為IL-6)釋放,該SASP側(cè)重于維持衰老狀態(tài)而不是加重衰老進(jìn)程[68]。
SASP的調(diào)控是多元化的,揭示了介導(dǎo)衰老的新機(jī)制,并伴隨了線粒體功能不同程度的損傷。重組人泛素蛋白連接酶(UBE2E3)耗竭會導(dǎo)致衰老,并表現(xiàn)出獨特的SASP:與線粒體功能障礙導(dǎo)致的衰老(MiDAS)不同,UBE2E3耗竭是一種線粒體網(wǎng)絡(luò)維護(hù)中斷的衰老方式,導(dǎo)致線粒體穩(wěn)態(tài)失調(diào)(例如線粒體的分布、質(zhì)量、對毒物易感性等),并導(dǎo)致IL-1β增加近6倍,而IL-10等常見SASP因子增加不甚明顯,這提示UBE2E3耗竭可能耦合了其他衰老途徑[69]。衰老細(xì)胞的細(xì)胞核中擠出的細(xì)胞質(zhì)染色質(zhì)片段(CCFs)也介導(dǎo)了細(xì)胞衰老:功能失調(diào)的線粒體會導(dǎo)致核編碼線粒體氧化磷酸化基因下調(diào),并觸發(fā)ROS-JNK逆行信號通路,驅(qū)動CCF的形成,從而導(dǎo)致SASP因子的產(chǎn)生[70]。染色體數(shù)量不均(非整倍體)會以c-Jun N末端激酶 (JNK)依賴的方式介導(dǎo)細(xì)胞衰老,并導(dǎo)致ROS產(chǎn)生、功能失調(diào)的線粒體累積以及SASP因子的釋放[71]。此外,內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)駐留的二硫鍵還原酶ERdj5缺失會引起細(xì)胞內(nèi)Ca2+失衡,并激活Drp1(一種參與線粒體裂變的胞質(zhì)GTP酶),最終導(dǎo)致線粒體異常斷裂、細(xì)胞活力下降以及SASP因子的釋放[72]。
線粒體穩(wěn)態(tài)失調(diào)介導(dǎo)的SASP效應(yīng)可通過自分泌/旁分泌途徑引發(fā)骨組織廣泛衰老,但更特殊的是,這種SASP效應(yīng)帶來的線粒體融合和分裂異常也會損害成骨能力,加強(qiáng)破骨細(xì)胞生成,從而加重骨質(zhì)疏松的發(fā)展。在氧化應(yīng)激條件下,成骨細(xì)胞中Drp1的表達(dá)及其磷酸化增加,導(dǎo)致線粒體出現(xiàn)碎片、畸形和囊泡狀[73]。并且SASP因子TNF-α可誘導(dǎo)Drp1高表達(dá)從而引發(fā)線粒體膜電位崩潰,導(dǎo)致線粒體功能降低,并抑制了成骨活性[74]。此外Drp1介導(dǎo)的線粒體超分裂還有利于破骨細(xì)胞增殖:在炎性狀態(tài)下廣泛生成的RANKL可通過調(diào)控Drp1及其受體蛋白Fis1、Mid49和Mid51的表達(dá)促進(jìn)破骨細(xì)胞分化,從而加重骨流失[75]。
線粒體穩(wěn)態(tài)失調(diào)介導(dǎo)的線粒體自噬減少是加重骨流失的關(guān)鍵因素。在氧化應(yīng)激條件下,ROS及超氧化物累積并參與破壞線粒體結(jié)構(gòu),導(dǎo)致線粒體膜電位變化,從而使得PINK1無法與Parkin信號耦合以清除損傷線粒體和抑制SASP效應(yīng)的傳導(dǎo)[76],并且有關(guān)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)PINK1在骨質(zhì)疏松癥患者體內(nèi)表達(dá)減少,這種減少導(dǎo)致了骨量下降,是抑制成骨分化并加重骨流失的關(guān)鍵[77]。
在線粒體穩(wěn)態(tài)調(diào)節(jié)中OPA發(fā)揮著極為重要的作用,并將線粒體功能與SASP效應(yīng)的傳導(dǎo)和糖代謝聯(lián)系起來。OPA1以長形式(L-OPA1)和短形式 (S-OPA1)調(diào)節(jié)線粒體的分裂與融合[78],在氧化應(yīng)激條件下,L-OPA1裂解為S-OPA1,并顯著降低線粒體功能并誘導(dǎo)成骨細(xì)胞凋亡[79]。而OPA過表達(dá)會激活p38MARK通路,使線粒體ATP生成減少并促進(jìn)骨髓細(xì)胞凋亡[80],從而加速骨質(zhì)疏松發(fā)生。而p38MARK的激活則伴隨了大量SASP的釋放,從而在骨組織擴(kuò)大了這種效應(yīng)。并且,在病理性高血糖狀態(tài)下,晚期糖基化終末產(chǎn)物(AGE)累積,從而增強(qiáng)了S-OPA1并抑制L-OPA1表達(dá)、加快ROS的生成并誘導(dǎo)了成骨細(xì)胞凋亡[81],從而將異常的糖代謝、線粒體穩(wěn)態(tài)失調(diào)與骨質(zhì)疏松聯(lián)系起來。
3.2 葡萄糖代謝異常與SASP
糖代謝異常介導(dǎo)血糖病理性升高以及晚期糖基化終末產(chǎn)物蓄積,這極大危害了骨骼系統(tǒng)的穩(wěn)定。SASP觀點認(rèn)為:高血糖狀態(tài)介導(dǎo)慢性炎癥發(fā)生,誘發(fā)細(xì)胞衰老,并產(chǎn)生大量促炎性SASP因子,在炎性骨微環(huán)境下,骨代謝由骨生成轉(zhuǎn)向骨吸收。
胰島B細(xì)胞衰老誘導(dǎo)病理性血糖升高、并產(chǎn)生大量SASP因子,從而以高糖、高炎刺激破壞成骨微環(huán)境。衰老胰島B細(xì)胞分泌CCL2、IL-1a、IL-6和TNF-α等核心SASP因子,并通過旁分泌途徑誘導(dǎo)相鄰未衰老胰島B細(xì)胞Cdkn2a基因表達(dá),從而導(dǎo)致廣泛的胰島B細(xì)胞耗竭[82]——胰島B細(xì)胞質(zhì)量降低導(dǎo)致胰島素分泌不足,從而加重了高血糖狀態(tài)。值得注意的是,衰老胰島B細(xì)胞這種旁分泌效應(yīng)也會擾亂胰島A細(xì)胞功能,導(dǎo)致胰高血糖素分泌障礙,進(jìn)而減少胰島素的分泌[83]。衰老會損害成體胰島B細(xì)胞的增殖和響應(yīng)生長刺激的能力,p16Ink4a表達(dá)增強(qiáng)啟動了胰島B細(xì)胞的衰老進(jìn)程,并降低其增殖能力、導(dǎo)致SASP因子大量釋放[84]。
病理性高血糖狀態(tài)會誘發(fā)低度炎癥,內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞和巨噬細(xì)胞是介導(dǎo)SASP效應(yīng)的主要傳播細(xì)胞,并在糖尿病性低度炎癥的傳播中起著極為重要的作用[85]。此外,又有研究表明:GLUT1可作為巨噬細(xì)胞中具有代表性和促進(jìn)性的葡萄糖轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)蛋白,并與SASP效應(yīng)的介導(dǎo)密不可分:在高葡萄糖環(huán)境下,骨髓源性巨噬細(xì)胞(BMDM)顯示出強(qiáng)烈的GLUT1 mRNA反應(yīng),驅(qū)動葡萄糖攝取升高,并觸發(fā)mTOR磷酸化從而引發(fā)p16/p21介導(dǎo)的SASP因子釋放[86];不止于此,高葡萄糖狀態(tài)還通過NLRC4磷酸化誘導(dǎo)巨噬細(xì)胞衰老和SASP因子分泌,進(jìn)而以IRF8依賴性途徑刺激NF-κB/Caspase-1級聯(lián)反應(yīng)從而導(dǎo)致更廣泛的SASP效應(yīng)[87],在多重調(diào)控機(jī)制下炎性骨流失加重,衰老骨細(xì)胞得以累積。
3.3 脂質(zhì)代謝紊亂與SASP
脂代謝紊亂導(dǎo)致脂肪蓄積,是細(xì)胞衰老進(jìn)行性加重的關(guān)鍵因素。SASP觀點認(rèn)為:脂肪蓄積誘導(dǎo)細(xì)胞衰老并引發(fā)SASP效應(yīng),并伴隨低度炎癥的形成,在這種炎性組織微環(huán)境下成骨作用減弱,骨吸收增強(qiáng),BMSC的成骨分化轉(zhuǎn)向成脂分化。
衰老細(xì)胞在肥胖患者脂肪組織中累積,并介導(dǎo)SASP效應(yīng)和炎癥的形成。肥胖個體脂肪組織中記憶B細(xì)胞生成頻率增加,而幼稚B細(xì)胞生成頻率減少,并且成熟B細(xì)胞(記憶B)表現(xiàn)出高代謝活性并伴隨IL-6、IL-8、TNF-α等大量炎性SASP因子釋放,從而加重了全身炎性狀態(tài)[88]。肥胖狀態(tài)也誘導(dǎo)了衰老巨噬細(xì)胞累積:衰老巨噬細(xì)胞表現(xiàn)為低吞噬、高分泌活性,其中CD9+巨噬細(xì)胞通過分泌骨橋蛋白、PDGF-BB協(xié)同促進(jìn)脂肪祖細(xì)胞表達(dá)PDGFRα和PDGFRβ,從而通過促進(jìn)細(xì)胞外沉積以及纖維化過程來抑制脂肪組織的生成,這是難得的抗衰老過程[89]。此外,肥胖還導(dǎo)致衰老脂肪祖細(xì)胞累積,并激活NOTCH通路導(dǎo)致SASP因子SFRP4和INHBA釋放,從而將脂肪生成轉(zhuǎn)化為纖維生成,起到抑制肥胖的作用[90]。不僅于此,衰老的脂肪祖細(xì)胞還可通過JAK通路表達(dá)SASP,從而介導(dǎo)全身炎癥反應(yīng)[91]。此外,又有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),脂肪祖細(xì)胞中SPRY1可通過抑制MAPK活性來抑制轉(zhuǎn)錄因子NF-κB和C/EBPβ活性從而減少SASP因子IL-6等的釋放[92]。
肥胖誘導(dǎo)MSC出現(xiàn)衰老狀態(tài),并降低其增殖分化能力,這對于骨重塑是不利的。肥胖誘導(dǎo)脂肪來源MSC下調(diào)PPAR-γ、上調(diào)p16和p53水平,并促進(jìn)炎癥SASP因子IL-6、MCP-1等表達(dá)從而抑制脂肪形成能力并傳遞衰老效應(yīng)[93]。并且,長期暴露于SASP環(huán)境中也會導(dǎo)致脂肪來源MSC血管生成潛力減弱,從而不利于血管化骨再生[94]。此外,又有研究將SASP因子IL-6確定為在肥胖期間誘導(dǎo)骨流失的關(guān)鍵炎癥遞質(zhì):IL-6通過激活BMSC中STAT3表達(dá),并通過p53/p21途徑誘導(dǎo)BMSC衰老,并出現(xiàn)SASP;利用抗體拮抗IL-6有助于維持骨髓成骨和脂肪生成之間的平衡,并抑制肥胖誘導(dǎo)的骨質(zhì)流失中BMSC衰老[95]。而另一重要SASP因子TNF-α則主要通過將炎癥效應(yīng)傳導(dǎo)到健康脂肪細(xì)胞,從而擴(kuò)大衰老效應(yīng)[96]。此外,肥胖介導(dǎo)的炎性SASP信號還可通過調(diào)控骨髓脂肪組織(BMAT)的含量來干預(yù)脂肪來源BMSC的分化進(jìn)程。在肥胖誘導(dǎo)的骨質(zhì)疏松模型中BMAT體積的增加,顯著增加了骨折風(fēng)險,并使BMSC由成脂分化轉(zhuǎn)向成骨分化[97-98]。此外,長期施加糖皮質(zhì)激素也會誘導(dǎo)BMAT累積:糖皮質(zhì)激素通過增加15d-PGJ2等氧化脂質(zhì)的合成,以激活PPAR-γ。PPAR-γ刺激關(guān)鍵SASP基因的表達(dá),也促進(jìn)骨髓脂肪細(xì)胞中氧化脂質(zhì)的合成,形成正反饋循環(huán),從而誘導(dǎo)糖皮質(zhì)激素性骨質(zhì)疏松的形成[99]。具體機(jī)制見圖2。
4 討論
SASP效應(yīng)的發(fā)生證明了人體細(xì)胞經(jīng)受超量損傷可以將其“翻譯”為衰老,這種衰老效應(yīng)不僅與年齡相關(guān),還與氧化應(yīng)激、炎癥等組織微環(huán)境急劇變化有關(guān),這為臨床從更深刻的角度探討骨質(zhì)疏松的形成機(jī)制提供了契機(jī)。SASP相關(guān)觀點認(rèn)為,骨質(zhì)疏松狀態(tài)的形成由以下幾方面因素驅(qū)動:(1)骨來源不足:與SASP效應(yīng)在衰老骨組織、組織微環(huán)境、BMSC之間傳遞有關(guān),其核心因素是BMSC衰老成骨能力不足。(2)骨轉(zhuǎn)化抑制:與SASP效應(yīng)在衰老組織、免疫細(xì)胞之間傳遞有關(guān),其核心驅(qū)動因素是免疫細(xì)胞衰老形成炎性SASP加重骨流失。(3)骨代謝受損:與線粒體損傷、脂代謝紊亂(肥胖)、糖代謝失調(diào)(糖尿病病理性高血糖)介導(dǎo)的SASP效應(yīng)在組織間傳遞有關(guān),其核心因素是代謝紊亂帶來的病理產(chǎn)物蓄積(如晚期糖基化終末產(chǎn)物、BMAT等)和炎性骨微環(huán)境形成有關(guān)。因此,可以利用SASP效應(yīng)廣泛調(diào)控骨微環(huán)境并介導(dǎo)炎癥的特點設(shè)計抗SASP策略,對骨質(zhì)疏松的治療進(jìn)行優(yōu)化。
作者貢獻(xiàn):楊超富負(fù)責(zé)收集文獻(xiàn)并撰寫論文;譚國慶、徐展望負(fù)責(zé)對論文提供建設(shè)性意見并提供基金支持。楊超富和譚國慶對稿件整體負(fù)責(zé)。
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(收稿日期:2023-09-25;修回日期:2024-01-20)
(本文編輯:趙躍翠)