劉晨
摘要 細胞核內(nèi)存在復雜的亞核結(jié)構(gòu),它們在結(jié)構(gòu)和空間分布上有所區(qū)別,以參與特定的生物學進程。paraspeckle是建立在長非編碼RNA(lncRNA)NEAT1上的不規(guī)則核體,NEAT1和paraspeckle蛋白在空間上排列形成核殼狀。paraspeckle及其成分通過將特定的蛋白質(zhì)和/或轉(zhuǎn)錄本保留在其核內(nèi),在許多細胞過程中控制基因表達,進而影響細胞進程,包括分化和一些應(yīng)激反應(yīng)。通過對近年來關(guān)于paraspeckle研究成果的歸納總結(jié),綜述了paraspeckle的結(jié)構(gòu)及形成過程等方面的研究進展,為進一步探究paraspeckle調(diào)控生理學過程的機制提供一定的理論基礎(chǔ)。
關(guān)鍵詞 核體;paraspeckle;結(jié)構(gòu);形成
中圖分類號 Q26 ?文獻標識碼 A ?文章編號 0517-6611(2020)19-0004-05
doi:10.3969/j.issn.0517-6611.2020.19.002
Abstract There are complex subnuclear structures within the nucleus that differ in structure and spatial distribution to participate in specific biological processes. Paraspeckle is an irregular nucleosome built on NEAT1, a long noncoding RNA. NEAT1 and paraspeckle proteins are arranged in space to form nucleosomes. Paraspeckle and its components control gene expression in many cellular processes, including differentiation and some stress responses, by retaining specific proteins and/or transcripts in nucleus. By summarizing the research results of paraspeckle in recent years, this paper reviewed the research progress in the structure and formation process of paraspeckle, providing a theoretical basis for further exploring the mechanism of paraspeckle regulating physiological processes.
Key words Nuclear bodies;Paraspeckle;Structure;Formation
細胞核是一個大而復雜的細胞器,它是高度結(jié)構(gòu)化的、具有復雜的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu),但其特征尚未完全闡明。細胞核的一個特征是:存在不同的亞核體,這些核體包含了一些特定的離散的蛋白質(zhì)和核酸,它們參與了特定的細胞核進程[1]。大多數(shù)亞核小體存在于染色質(zhì)之間的區(qū)域,包括Cajal小體、PML小體和nuclear speckles,直徑0.2~2.0 μm,包含多個核調(diào)節(jié)因子,如DNA結(jié)合蛋白質(zhì)和/或RNA結(jié)合蛋白質(zhì),參與基因表達的不同階段,包括轉(zhuǎn)錄、RNA加工、輸出和存儲這些因子等過程[2-3]。
paraspeckle是由Visa、Puvion- dutilleul、Bachellerie和Puvion(1993)首次發(fā)現(xiàn)的非膜質(zhì)核體,電子顯微鏡檢測到,它們是處于染色質(zhì)顆粒相關(guān)帶的電子致密結(jié)構(gòu)。2002年,一項研究用質(zhì)譜法對純化的人核仁進行蛋白質(zhì)組學分析,共鑒定出271種蛋白,其中約30%為新蛋白[4]。后續(xù)分析發(fā)現(xiàn)了其中一種新蛋白并不富集于核仁,而是彌散分布在核漿內(nèi),并集中于一些亞核斑點[5]。因為它們被發(fā)現(xiàn)定位于染色質(zhì)間接近但不同于nuclear speckles,因此這些斑點被命名為paraspeckle。定位于這些結(jié)構(gòu)的新蛋白隨后被命名為paraspeckle protein 1(PSPC1)。2009年,4個研究組各自獨立地發(fā)現(xiàn)了NEAT1 lncRNA(或稱為MENε/β),最初叫nuclear enriched abundant transcript 1,隨后改稱為nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1,是paraspeckle一個重要的結(jié)構(gòu)性組分[6-9]。
paraspeckle最初被描述為富含DBHS(drosophila behavior human splicing)家族RNA結(jié)合蛋白的核體[1]。DBHS蛋白家族的成員已經(jīng)被證明可以結(jié)合雙鏈和單鏈DNA和RNA,并與許多不同的復合物發(fā)生交聯(lián)[10]。DBHS家族蛋白參與RNA產(chǎn)生和加工的許多方面,包括轉(zhuǎn)錄起始、轉(zhuǎn)錄終止和剪接[11-16]。在分子水平上,paraspeckle被認為可以將蛋白質(zhì)或轉(zhuǎn)錄本隔離到核內(nèi),充當調(diào)節(jié)核質(zhì)中活性分子水平的分子海綿[17-18],從而調(diào)節(jié)多種細胞進程及生理過程。
paraspeckle是由其結(jié)構(gòu)性RNA NEAT1和多個RNA結(jié)合蛋白組成的大型核糖核蛋白復合物。NEAT1和paraspeckle蛋白在空間上排列以形成有序結(jié)構(gòu)[19]。大多數(shù)核物質(zhì)表現(xiàn)出液滴狀特征,與周圍的核質(zhì)相分離,并能融合形成較大的液滴[20-21]。液滴通過液-液相分離(LLPS)進行組裝,這是通過形成多個分子間多價相互作用來完成的[22-24]。核體包含多個具有內(nèi)在無序區(qū)域的RNA結(jié)合蛋白,這些區(qū)域使RNA結(jié)合和誘導LLPS,因此是非膜性核體形成的驅(qū)動力[20-21]。從paraspeckle蛋白的相互作用網(wǎng)絡(luò)圖中發(fā)現(xiàn),RBM14(RNA結(jié)合蛋白14)是一種重要的paraspeckle組件,它通過其朊樣結(jié)構(gòu)域(PLD)介導了一種關(guān)鍵的相互作用,將其他幾種重要蛋白連接到網(wǎng)絡(luò)中,對paraspeckle的形成至關(guān)重要[25]。筆者通過查閱核體paraspeckle結(jié)構(gòu)及形成方面的文獻,對paraspeckle的結(jié)構(gòu)、組分及裝備等方面進行了綜述,為進一步研究paraspeckle生物發(fā)生過程及其生物學功能提供了一定的理論依據(jù)。
1 paraspeckle的結(jié)構(gòu)特征及功能
paraspeckle是一種體積小、大小不規(guī)則、分布不均勻的亞核體。在哺乳動物組織和細胞中,paraspeckle廣泛分布,大多數(shù)鼠源和人源細胞系和組織被證明含有paraspeckle,包括轉(zhuǎn)化和原代細胞系,胚胎成纖維細胞和致瘤活組織[5,7-9,26]。根據(jù)細胞類型的不同,paraspeckle的數(shù)量在每個核5~20個斑點(例如,HeLa包括13~17個斑點/核,NIH3T3細胞包括5~10個斑點/核)[7]。paraspeckle被發(fā)現(xiàn)存在于染色質(zhì)間區(qū)域,夾在nuclear speckles和染色質(zhì)間。電鏡研究和熒光圖像顯示,paraspeckle大小范圍為0.5~1.0 μm直徑,并呈現(xiàn)不規(guī)則的腸樣形狀[27]。
DBHS RNA結(jié)合蛋白家族成員在paraspeckle中特別豐富,包括含非POU域八聚體結(jié)合蛋白(NONO)、脯氨酸和谷氨酸富集剪接因子(SFPQ)和PSPC1,在paraspeckle中特別豐富[28-29]。paraspeckle是依賴于RNAPⅡ轉(zhuǎn)錄的RNase敏感結(jié)構(gòu),這表明它們的維持需要RNAs[30]。Neat1是一種哺乳動物特異性的lncRNA,是paraspeckle的結(jié)構(gòu)組成部分。Neat1的缺失會導致該核體的解體[6-9]。Neat1的2種亞型由一個共同的啟動子誘導形成的,長(小鼠為20 kb)的Neat1_2亞型是paraspeckle形成所需,而短(小鼠為3.2 kb)的Neat1_1亞型對其結(jié)構(gòu)功能的維持是非必需的[31-32]。Neat1_2在paraspeckle里的排列是有序的,5′和3′的末端位于邊緣,Neat1_2的中部位于paraspeckle中央?yún)^(qū)[33]。觀察結(jié)果表明,Neat1_2呈放射狀排列在香腸狀paraspeckle的橫平面上,為paraspeckle蛋白的組裝提供了一個結(jié)構(gòu)支架。使用結(jié)構(gòu)光照明顯微鏡對這些核物質(zhì)進行精細的結(jié)構(gòu)分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)呈現(xiàn)良好的核殼類球狀結(jié)構(gòu),蛋白和RNA轉(zhuǎn)錄本沿徑向取向的Neat1_2轉(zhuǎn)錄本有序分布[34]。對paraspeckle結(jié)構(gòu)維持至關(guān)重要的蛋白定位于核心或斑塊,而不是paraspeckle的外殼[31],說明前一種成分起著結(jié)構(gòu)上的作用,而外殼成分與核質(zhì)成分結(jié)合,發(fā)揮其功能。
paraspeckle已知的主要功能與其RNA成分有關(guān)。 Paraspeckle被認為可以調(diào)節(jié)多種細胞過程,包括高A-to-I編輯水平的mRNAs的核保留[6,26],通過SFPQ的隔離來控制轉(zhuǎn)錄[17],以及對特定細胞中聚肌苷-聚胞苷酸雙鏈核苷酸的免疫反應(yīng)[18]。此外,paraspeckle是由病毒感染、蛋白酶體抑制和分化引起的應(yīng)激反應(yīng)性結(jié)構(gòu)[9,17-18]。從生理學上講,NEAT1是參與小鼠雌性生殖的特定組織的發(fā)育和各種癌癥進程所必需的[35-38]。特別是,據(jù)報道,一部分Neat1基因敲除的雌性小鼠卵巢黃體的形成受損,這種Neat1顯著表達的結(jié)構(gòu)參與了妊娠期孕酮的生成。在懷孕期間缺乏黃體的形成會導致不育和/或雌性可育懷孕更少[37]。一些含有PLD的paraspeckle蛋白(FUS、TDP-43等)[31,39]已知會導致肌萎縮性脊髓側(cè)索硬化癥(ALS)的突變[40-44]。在ALS運動神經(jīng)元中也可見到paraspeckle,在額顳葉變性相關(guān)情況下NEAT1表達上調(diào)[39,45]。
2 paraspeckle的組成成分
2.1 NEAT1/Men ε/β RNA
現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)知道,特別是對哺乳動物來說,基因組的大部分是轉(zhuǎn)錄的,以產(chǎn)生蛋白質(zhì)編碼和非蛋白編碼RNA[46]。近年來,對非編碼RNA的定義及功能的研究大量呈現(xiàn)。在2007年的一項針對核非編碼RNA種類定義的研究中,描述了2種豐富廣泛表達的核富集常染色體非編碼轉(zhuǎn)錄本,稱為NEAT1(也稱為Men ε/β)和NEAT2(也稱為MALAT-1)[47]。RNA-FISH顯示MALAT-1定位于核斑點,而NEAT1則在臨近核斑點的亞核斑點(顯示為paraspeckle)處被發(fā)現(xiàn),NEAT1和MALAT-1 非編碼RNAs由RNA Pol Ⅱ產(chǎn)生,獨立于蛋白編碼基因。NEAT1有2個亞型:NEAT1_1和NEAT1_2(之前稱為Men ε和Men β),它們共享5′端3~4 kb的序列,即NEAT1_1,更長的亞型NEAT1_2含有額外的約20 kb的RNA[48]。NEAT1_2 RNA的3′末端經(jīng)剪切產(chǎn)生一個特別的tRNA樣分子[9,49]。NEAT1_1在其3′端具有典型的聚腺苷酸信號(PAS)。而NEAT1_2的tRNA樣結(jié)構(gòu)會被RNase P識別、剪切,暴露出一個基因組編碼的oligo(a)序列和一個獨特的3′端三重螺旋結(jié)構(gòu)(3′TH)。剪切得到的tRNA樣小分子不穩(wěn)定,迅速降解[50]。3′TH是體內(nèi)外穩(wěn)定NEAT1_2的關(guān)鍵[49,51-52],但3′TH質(zhì)粒對paraspeckle的組裝不是必需的[31]。
利用CRISPR-Cas9介導的敲除試驗對人的NEAT1_2進行研究,可以將其劃分為3個功能不同的結(jié)構(gòu)域,分別負責NEAT1的穩(wěn)定、亞型選擇和paraspeckle裝配,都是形成paraspeckle所必需的。位于5′(0~1 kb)和3′末端(3′TH)的結(jié)構(gòu)域是NEAT1穩(wěn)定所必需的,值得注意的是,5′端1 kb區(qū)域被確定為NEAT1穩(wěn)定和paraspeckle形成所需的其他功能區(qū)域[52]。NEAT1_1的多聚腺苷酸化位點(PAS)上游(2.1~2.8 kb)和下游(4.0~5.1 kb)2個區(qū)域促進了NEAT1_2的表達,抑制了NEAT1_1的表達。當PAS完好時,該結(jié)構(gòu)域發(fā)揮作用,這表明該結(jié)構(gòu)域抑制了PAS依賴的聚腺苷酸的合成,從而促進了NEAT1_2的合成。此外還有報道,NEAT1_1聚腺苷酸的調(diào)節(jié)是通過一種獨特的機制發(fā)生的,即CPSF6/Nudt21與靠近PAS的CUGA序列簇結(jié)合,從而促進NEAT1_1的聚腺苷酸化。HNRNPK通過與位于CUGA簇和PAS之間的嘧啶延伸結(jié)合,干擾聚腺苷酸化。PAS附近域的作用與依賴于HNRNPK的機制之間的關(guān)系尚不清楚,NEAT1的亞型轉(zhuǎn)換可能至少受2種不同的機制控制,每種機制都依賴于特定的細胞類型[19]。BLAST算法分析比較NEAT1_2序列顯示,在3種哺乳動物中出現(xiàn)了一些不同長度和相似性的重復序列,一些重復序列與已知的LINE和SINE元件有重疊,即NEAT1_2的一個相對較大的中間區(qū)域(8.0~16.6 kb),缺失分析顯示其對paraspeckle組裝來說是必需的,該結(jié)構(gòu)域與5′及3′末端結(jié)構(gòu)域組成的NEAT1_2突變體(mini-NEAT1)能夠形成一個結(jié)構(gòu)有序的paraspeckle[52]。進一步的缺失分析表明,中間結(jié)構(gòu)域至少包含3個功能子域(9.8~12.0、120~130、15.4~16.6 kb)。中間結(jié)構(gòu)域和外部區(qū)域以及中間結(jié)構(gòu)域本身之間似乎存在復雜的多重功能冗余[52]。一些lncRNAs(如XIST)據(jù)報道含有重復序列延伸,這些重復序列具有重要的功能作用[53-54],這可能提示了NEAT1_2含有重復遺傳元件的中間區(qū)域為何對paraspeckle的組裝發(fā)揮關(guān)鍵作用。
Mao等[51]使用基因組整合報告系統(tǒng)表明,RNAPⅡ從其基因組位點轉(zhuǎn)錄NEAT1可以在轉(zhuǎn)錄位點誘導paraspeckle的從頭形成。另一方面,人工聚集的NEAT1不能誘導paraspeckle形成,表明paraspeckle是在其基因組位點與新生的NEAT1共同轉(zhuǎn)錄形成的[55]。NEAT1轉(zhuǎn)錄受各種內(nèi)外部條件、病原體和化學物質(zhì)的調(diào)節(jié)[9,17,28,35,38,56]。最近,對NEAT1調(diào)控子的基因組大范圍篩選發(fā)現(xiàn)了paraspeckle和線粒體之間的交叉調(diào)控,該交叉調(diào)控受ATF2轉(zhuǎn)錄調(diào)控下游因子對NEAT1的調(diào)控[57]。
2.2 paraspeckle蛋白
迄今為止,已知超過40種蛋白在paraspeckle中積累,大部分是富集RNA識別基序(RRMs)、鋅指結(jié)構(gòu)域和K同源域的豐富的核RNA結(jié)合蛋白[31,58]。根據(jù)每種蛋白缺失時引起的paraspeckle破壞的程度,可以將這些蛋白分為3類[31]:第1類蛋白質(zhì)對paraspeckle的結(jié)構(gòu)維持至關(guān)重要,它們被進一步細分為Ia類蛋白和Ib類蛋白,Ia類蛋白是生成或穩(wěn)定Neat1_2(如SFPQ、NONO和RBM14)所必需的,Ib類蛋白不影響Neat1_2的量(如FUS/TLS和BRG1)[8,25,31];第2類蛋白(如TARDBP)的缺失導致具有paraspeckle的細胞數(shù)量大幅減少;第3類蛋白(如PSPC1)對paraspekcle的形成沒有明顯的影響[31]。所有的paraspeckle蛋白都具有RNA結(jié)合能力,但不一定參與共同的生物學過程[34]。
PLD正逐漸成為基因調(diào)控的重要模塊,一個新興的概念是PLD允許蛋白質(zhì)“功能聚集”,形成高階組裝體和顯微鏡下可見的核糖核蛋白顆粒[59]。將蛋白質(zhì)和RNA濃縮在一個有限的空間中被認為可以產(chǎn)生更有效的基因調(diào)控過程。Hennig等[25]對已知的以及一些推定的paraspeckle蛋白進行了酵母雙雜交篩選,得到了一個根據(jù)paraspeckle蛋白之間相互作用繪制的網(wǎng)絡(luò)圖,在相互作用網(wǎng)絡(luò)中,PLD蛋白過度表達:網(wǎng)絡(luò)中66%的蛋白具有PLD(19/29),而55%的起始蛋白具有PLD(26/47)。其中,RBM14 PLD介導了一種關(guān)鍵的相互作用,將其他幾種重要蛋白連接到網(wǎng)絡(luò)中。酵母雙雜交和免疫共沉淀試驗證實,RBM14 PLD與NONO的強烈相互作用是必需的,而且這種相互作用不依賴于RNA[25]。此外,在對RNA結(jié)合蛋白FUS的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),其PLD包含許多重復的[G/S]Y[G/S][60-61],負責將FUS定位于paraspeckle[62]。PLD在體外以水凝膠的形式表達,形成網(wǎng)狀網(wǎng)絡(luò)[63-64],而FUS重復序列中的中心酪氨酸對水凝膠的形成和胞質(zhì)中應(yīng)激顆粒的靶向作用至關(guān)重要[63]。RBM14與FUS相似,均對paraspeckle的形成至關(guān)重要。
3 paraspeckle的裝配形成
paraspeckle是由lncRNA NEAT1及一些蛋白質(zhì)通過蛋白-RNA相互作用、蛋白-蛋白相互作用構(gòu)建而成的巨大核糖核蛋白復合物。
NONO和SFPQ與NEAT1_2的功能交互啟動了paraspeckle組裝[19,52]。NONO和SFPQ在細胞中形成一種主要的異質(zhì)二聚體,NONO中特有的NOPS結(jié)構(gòu)域負責其與DBHS家族蛋白的二聚[65]。主要締合的NONO/SFPQ二聚體隨后可通過卷曲螺旋(CC)域引發(fā)聚合,最終可能覆蓋整個NEAT1_2 結(jié)構(gòu)性RNA。PAR-CLIP數(shù)據(jù)顯示,PSP結(jié)合位點廣泛覆蓋整個NEAT1_2區(qū)域,3個子域包含多個NONO和SFPQ的突出結(jié)合峰[52]。此外,先前的透射電鏡研究表明,SFPQ可以通過CC域聚合形成高階復合物[66]。即NEAT1_2的子域作為NONO/SFPQ二聚體的主要結(jié)合位點,使后續(xù)聚合成為可能,并形成NEAT1_2核糖核蛋白復合物的基礎(chǔ)[20]。
LLPS是由具有低復雜性結(jié)構(gòu)域(LCDs)的蛋白質(zhì)完成的[20]。LCDs缺乏明確的三維結(jié)構(gòu),為多價弱粘著分子間相互作用,如靜電、pi堆積和疏水相互作用提供了基礎(chǔ)[22,24,67]。在一個閾值濃度以上,形成多價相互作用的蛋白質(zhì)可以自組裝并經(jīng)歷LLPS,從而形成大量的無膜體,如Cajal小體[52]。最近有報道表明NEAT1 RNA片段可以促進FUS液滴在非特異性RNAs緩沖液中體外成核[68]。大多數(shù)paraspeckle蛋白包含被歸類為含有PLD的LCDs,這可以有效地誘導LLPS[25,28,52]。paraspeckle蛋白能快速地進出paraspeckle,因此paraspeckle具有相分離體的特征之一——高度的動態(tài)性。結(jié)構(gòu)性RNA NEAT1極有可能為含LCDs的蛋白(如FUS和RBM14)提供多個結(jié)合位點以促進其局部濃度,并最終在其自身的轉(zhuǎn)錄位點附近誘導LLPS,以形成paraspeckle[20]。
此外,最近的證據(jù)表明,分子間RNA-RNA相互作用在核糖核蛋白顆粒的形成中起作用,重復的RNAs會形成獨特的核體樣斑點[69-71]。且藥物導致NONO與paraspeckle解離后,仍可檢測到較弱的NEAT1斑點[52]。最近的RNA結(jié)構(gòu)mappings已經(jīng)確定了NEAT1_2分子內(nèi)的大量RNA-RNA相互作用,這些相互作用可能發(fā)生在轉(zhuǎn)錄位點或NEAT1高度集中的paraspeckle內(nèi)[72]。這些結(jié)果都表明獨立于蛋白的NEAT1 RNA-RNA相互作用也參與了paraspeckle的形成。
4 展望
目前,包括paraspeckle中的NEAT1_2 lncRNA在內(nèi)的8個參與構(gòu)建核體lncRNAs可被分類為結(jié)構(gòu)性RNAs[73-79],均可以通過局部隔離特定的PLD蛋白來集中和觸發(fā)LLPS。最近Hirose等[19]根據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu)性RNA候選基因的半提取特征開發(fā)了一種轉(zhuǎn)錄組范圍的篩選方法。通過對HeLa細胞進行轉(zhuǎn)錄組水平的分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)了45個具有半可提取特征的RNAs,其中前10個最豐富的RNAs在核斑點中均表現(xiàn)出明顯的定位[20,67]。這些發(fā)現(xiàn)表明在人類轉(zhuǎn)錄組中存在不明的結(jié)構(gòu)性RNAs,進一步探索位于功能域的結(jié)構(gòu)性RNA元件將為結(jié)構(gòu)性RNA功能機制提供更多的見解。
NEAT1_1亞型對于paraspeckle的形成是必不可少的,其作用至今仍知之甚少。NEAT1_1和NEAT1_2共有的5′端基因結(jié)構(gòu)使得這2種亞型之間的功能關(guān)系難以詳細分析。最近的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),HeLa細胞中NEAT1_1的實際含量比NEAT1_2低10倍,說明NEAT1_1并不是paraspeckle的主要成分[67]。基因組編輯介導的每個NEAT1亞型缺失進一步發(fā)現(xiàn),NEAT1_1定位于許多被稱為“microspeckles”的non-paraspeckle斑點,它們可能具有獨立于paraspeckle的功能[80],有待進一步探索。
調(diào)節(jié)核糖核蛋白顆粒的形成正在成為癌癥和神經(jīng)退行性疾病的潛在治療應(yīng)用。特別相關(guān)的是肌萎縮性側(cè)索硬化癥,它與很多核內(nèi)含PLD蛋白的細胞質(zhì)聚集體有關(guān),在許多情況下是由含PLD蛋白的突變引起的[25,81-82]?,F(xiàn)在已知有6種paraspeckle蛋白(FUS、TDP-43、SS18L1、HNRNPA1、TAF15和EWSR1)在發(fā)生突變時會導致ALS,其他的paraspeckle蛋白可能是新的ALS基因的候選對象。PLD介導的功能性聚集在ALS RNA結(jié)合蛋白中的重要性越來越受到重視,這為進一步研究如何在疾病中干擾這些過程打開了大門。不同PLD中的重復基序,以及這些重復基序中的差異如何與核糖核蛋白復合物和其他裝配物的功能聚合相關(guān)仍然是一個需要探索的問題。
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