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水環(huán)境中PPCPs檢測技術及風險評價研究進展

2018-01-23 06:48:02姚晶晶吳東海陸光華沈興厚
水資源保護 2018年1期
關鍵詞:人體環(huán)境生態(tài)

姚晶晶,吳東海,陸光華,,周 超,沈興厚

(1.西藏農牧學院水利土木工程學院,西藏 林芝 860000;2.河海大學環(huán)境學院,江蘇 南京 210098;3.河南省水文水資源局,河南 鄭州 450004)

藥物及個人護理品(pharmaceuticals and personal care products,PPCPs)廣泛應用于醫(yī)藥、工業(yè)、畜牧業(yè)、農業(yè)、水產養(yǎng)殖等領域[1]。由于PPCPs大量使用以及城市污水處理廠現有工藝處理不徹底[2],近年來PPCPs已在江河湖泊[3-4]、地下水[5]、市政污水[6-7]、水源水[8-9]中被頻繁檢出,雖然其濃度大多在ng/L至μg/L,但這些物質長期賦存可能對生態(tài)系統(tǒng)產生潛在危害[10]。如雙氯芬酸、舍曲林和氟西汀等在水體中殘留會抑制斑馬魚胚胎三磷酸腺苷酶活性,影響某些外排轉運蛋白的正常工作[11]。已有研究表明,諾氟沙星和磺胺甲惡唑類抗生素會對魚類的生長和繁殖產生不利影響[12],羅紅霉素能夠誘導魚類生化指標發(fā)生變化[13]。Arpin-Pont等[14]發(fā)現在海洋中殘留的PPCPs會對海洋生物的代謝活動產生一定危害,進而通過生物累積對人類健康產生影響。

目前PPCPs已成為環(huán)境領域的研究熱點,近十年來已有大量相關文獻報道,其中尤以天然水體中低濃度PPCPs的定量分析和風險評價更受關注。本文從水樣前處理方法和儀器分析技術兩方面總結分析了PPCPs定量檢測技術的發(fā)展,在此基礎上闡述了水環(huán)境中PPCPs的健康風險和生態(tài)風險的評價方法以及取得的研究進展,最后對本領域研究局限性及未來的發(fā)展方向作了總結和展望。

1 水環(huán)境中PPCPs檢測技術

由于PPCPs在天然水體中的含量通常很低,現有分析儀器無法直接對水樣進行定量檢測。因此,水環(huán)境樣品中PPCPs的分析檢測技術通常由樣品前處理技術和儀器定量分析技術兩部分組成。通過水樣前處理技術,能夠濃縮富集被測的痕量組分,降低檢測限,并改善方法的靈敏度,而高效靈敏、適應性高的分析儀器保證了PPCPs檢測結果的精確性。

表2 水環(huán)境中PPCPs的常用儀器分析技術原理及優(yōu)缺點

1.1 樣品前處理方法

常用的PPCPs樣品前處理方有液液萃取法(liquid-liquid extraction,LLE)、分散液液微萃取(dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction,DLLME)、固相萃取(solid-phase extraction,SPE)、固相微萃取法(solid-phase microextraction,SPME)等。表1總結了目前PPCPs前處理常用方法的原理及其優(yōu)缺點[6, 15-20]。近年來,SPME與氣相、液相能夠匹配,并可實現在線聯(lián)用,適合于分析水樣中揮發(fā)性、半揮發(fā)性、難揮發(fā)的物質,已被廣泛應用于水環(huán)境中樣品的富集。

1.2 儀器分析技術

近年來發(fā)展迅速、應用較多的PPCPs儀器分析技術有二維氣相色譜法(two-dimensional gas chromatography, GC×GC)、高效液相色譜法(high performance liquid chromatography,HPLC))、氣相色譜質譜聯(lián)用(gas chromatography with mass spectrometry,GC-MS)、高效液相色譜質譜聯(lián)用(high performance liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry,HPLC-MS/MS)等。表2概括了水環(huán)境中PPCPs的常用儀器分析技術原理及優(yōu)缺點[21-28]。目前對于水環(huán)境中PPCPs的儀器分析方法大多是在氣相色譜(GC)和高效液相色譜(HPLC)基礎上改進和創(chuàng)新而來的,通過優(yōu)化色譜、質譜條件和減少基質效應等來提高分離能力和靈敏度。

樣品前處理將向著綠色環(huán)保、高效、小型便攜化和自動化等方向發(fā)展;樣品儀器分析則朝著快速檢測、高選擇性、高靈敏等方向發(fā)展。表3列舉了目前受到重點關注的水環(huán)境中典型PPCPs的檢測技術及方法可靠性[15,20,29-34]。多種方法聯(lián)用檢測技術的快速發(fā)展為研究人員更好地分析PPCPs在水環(huán)境中的賦存和風險提供了技術支持。

表3 水環(huán)境中典型PPCPs的檢測方法及可靠性

2 水環(huán)境中PPCPs的風險評價

PPCPs風險評價中關于人體健康風險和生態(tài)風險的評價基準缺少公認的標準,不同研究人員采取不同的風險評價基準,可能會導致風險評價結果不盡相同?;诿绹鴩铱茖W院和美國環(huán)保署提出的風險評價“四步法”主要包括危害鑒定、劑量效應關系評價、暴露評估和風險表征[35],作為實施風險評價的主要指南,已被中國、法國、日本等多個國家所采用。目前水環(huán)境中關于PPCPs的風險評價主要基于這種評價方法。

水環(huán)境中PPCPs的風險評價可分為人體健康風險評價和生態(tài)風險評價。人體健康風險評價的側重點在人群的健康風險,而生態(tài)風險評價的主體是生態(tài)系統(tǒng)或者水環(huán)境中的生物群體。

2.1 人體健康風險評價

1986年美國國家環(huán)保署根據風險評價的四步法發(fā)布了《致癌風險評價指南》《致畸風險評價指南》《發(fā)育毒物的健康風險評價指南》《暴露風險評價指南》,1988年又頒布了《男女生殖性能風險評價指南》等一系列指導人體健康風險評價的技術性文件。2006年我國頒布的GB 5749—2006《生活飲用水衛(wèi)生標準》,通過各種水樣的合格標準來定性評估人體健康風險。

近年來,對PPCPs的人體健康風險研究取得了一定進展。張芹等[4]運用美國環(huán)保署的風險熵法,定性評價了表層水體中32種PPCPs對從嬰幼兒到成人不同年齡段人群的健康風險,發(fā)現整體上呈現隨年齡增長風險降低的趨勢。Chen等[36]進行了農村污水中PPCPs的健康風險評價,發(fā)現布洛芬及其轉化產物出現在下游飲用水水源中,對人體健康具有潛在危害。李勇等[37]調查舟山島水庫抗生素殘留特征時,發(fā)現呋喃唑酮在岑港水庫上游水樣中最高,質量濃度為53.73 ng/L,呋喃唑酮及其代謝產物對人體有致畸胎和誘發(fā)癌癥的作用,存在潛在的高風險。Archer等[38]通過基于最敏感生物的慢性毒性數據,研究發(fā)現雙氯芬酸、克拉霉素和其代謝轉化產物通過生物累積可能會使人體內分泌系統(tǒng)發(fā)生紊亂。Prosser等[39]報道了用PPCPs類污染廢水灌溉的食用植物對人體健康影響,將人體每日攝入量估計值與可接受的每日攝入量進行比較,以確定累積在植物組織中的PPCPs是否對人體健康構成危害,結果發(fā)現三氯生和磺胺二甲嘧啶對人體健康具有中等風險。Harrison等[40]研究發(fā)現人體長期食用含PPCPs的蛋、肉后,在人體中產生了耐藥基因。

目前大多數的PPCPs人體健康風險評價研究從定性角度和生物累積來推測人體健康風險,這方面發(fā)展既需要長期的實驗研究作為數據支持,也需要評價方法的改進。

2.2 生態(tài)風險評價

水環(huán)境中PPCPs的生態(tài)風險評價不僅要求有環(huán)境調查,還要求大量的模擬試驗研究以及合適的評價模型論證等。目前水環(huán)境中的PPCPs生態(tài)風險評價是以風險熵法(risk quotient,RQ)為基礎來評價PPCPs對水環(huán)境的影響程度。RQ值不小于1.0時,認為是高風險;介于0.1~1.0,認為是中風險;介于0.01~0.1,認為是低風險。表4列出了當前國內外研究較多的PPCPs生態(tài)風險評價方法及評價結果[4,8,18,41-49]。

利用單一風險熵法評價水環(huán)境中PPCPs風險程度時,局限于預測濃度和其對水環(huán)境無影響的最大濃度兩者的比值,需要有長期穩(wěn)定的水環(huán)境監(jiān)測數據作為支撐,評價結果的可比性差。運用混合風險熵或疊加指數法,雖然考慮了水中多種PPCPs共存的情況,但是沒有考慮污染物之間的交互作用。多種模型和評價體系應用于水環(huán)境的風險評價,例如利用改進決策樹模型[50]考慮污染物濃度和時效性等因素對飲用水水源地水進行環(huán)境健康風險評價;羅慧萍等[51]建立了風險源-風險受體響應的水源地綜合風險評價體系,對泰州市第三自來水廠飲用水水源地水進行環(huán)境風險評價。綜合使用專家評價結合層次分析法、參數分級評分疊加指數法和物種敏感分布法等方法,將有利于對水環(huán)境中PPCPs的生態(tài)風險程度進行更為客觀、合理的評價。

表4 水環(huán)境中PPCPs的生態(tài)風險評價方法及結果

3 結語與展望

在過去幾十年中,隨著科學的進步和技術的不斷革新,涌現出越來越多用于濃縮富集、分析檢測環(huán)境痕量污染物的新技術,使得水環(huán)境中的PPCPs污染表征和污染源識別成為可能。然而,對于水環(huán)境中超痕量PPCPs的定量分析技術和風險評價方法的發(fā)展亟待加強。

在SPE和SPME基礎上改進的樣品前處理方法廣泛應用于低濃度的水環(huán)境樣品的富集濃縮,且效率高,可同時萃取多種不同物質。在GC和HPLC基礎上不斷創(chuàng)新的儀器分析技術越來越多用于水環(huán)境中超痕量PPCPs的定量分析且靈敏度高,自動化程度高。但水環(huán)境中PPCPs具有不同的物理化學性質和復雜的基體,對其精準定量分析的研究依舊薄弱,因此,未來研究應更多地開發(fā)便攜高效、靈敏度高的前處理方法,以及實現在線前處理-分析儀器檢測的聯(lián)合使用,以便精準定量水環(huán)境中超痕量的PPCPs。

PPCPs的風險評價大多是以美國環(huán)境保護署或歐盟環(huán)境風險評價為技術指導進行風險熵值的計算,人體健康風險主要是通過簡單的單一風險熵或動物暴露實驗推測而來;生態(tài)風險評價則趨向于采用混合風險熵或疊加指數法。然而對于多種PPCPs及其衍生轉化產物的風險研究尚少,因此,急需發(fā)展針對水環(huán)境中共存PPCPs及其轉化產物的綜合風險評價方法。

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