李沖煒, 鄒 攀, 楊兆光,2, 李海普*
(1.中南大學(xué) 化學(xué)化工學(xué)院,湖南 長(zhǎng)沙 410083;2.中南大學(xué) 深圳研究院,廣東 深圳 518057)
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天然水體中兩種主要異嗅物質(zhì)的來源及遷移轉(zhuǎn)化研究進(jìn)展
李沖煒1, 鄒 攀1, 楊兆光1,2, 李海普1*
(1.中南大學(xué) 化學(xué)化工學(xué)院,湖南 長(zhǎng)沙 410083;2.中南大學(xué) 深圳研究院,廣東 深圳 518057)
近年來,水中嗅味問題逐漸引起關(guān)注。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),天然水體中異嗅物質(zhì)主要是微生物和藻類的揮發(fā)性次級(jí)代謝產(chǎn)物??偨Y(jié)了天然水體中常見的兩種異嗅物質(zhì)土臭素(GSM) 和二甲基異莰醇(MIB)的來源及其在生物體內(nèi)的合成途徑。介紹了異嗅物質(zhì)通過吸附、揮發(fā)、光解、生物降解等一系列作用在飲用水水源中的遷移轉(zhuǎn)化以及其進(jìn)入水體生物的途徑。
揮發(fā)性次級(jí)代謝產(chǎn)物;異嗅物質(zhì);二甲基異莰醇;土臭素;歸趨
異嗅是指人的感覺器官(鼻)所感知的異?;蛄钊擞憛挼臍馕?。湖泊、河流等水源中常見的異嗅物質(zhì)主要是土霉味的土臭素(geosmin,GSM)和二甲基異莰醇(2-methylisoborneol,MIB)。此類物質(zhì)在很低的濃度水平下即可令人感知到相關(guān)異嗅的存在(MIB為5~10 ng/L,GSM為1~10 ng/L)[1]。隨著生活水平的不斷提高,人們對(duì)飲用水、水產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量的要求越來越高。據(jù)相關(guān)統(tǒng)計(jì),異嗅已成為自來水消費(fèi)者投訴比例最高的一類問題[2]。國(guó)外從20世紀(jì)50年代就開始對(duì)水體異嗅的研究,已成為當(dāng)今世界水環(huán)境研究熱點(diǎn)之一。而我國(guó)在該方面的研究相對(duì)較晚,相關(guān)研究工作也較少,僅近幾年來關(guān)于太湖、黃浦江、武漢東湖、北京景觀湖泊等水體異嗅現(xiàn)象才有一些文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道[3-5]。隨著我國(guó)水體富營(yíng)養(yǎng)化日益嚴(yán)重,飲用水的異嗅問題也日漸突出。如齊飛等[5]對(duì)北京9處典型景觀湖泊水體嗅味污染特征進(jìn)行研究發(fā)現(xiàn),這9處水體中MIB和GSM平均濃度高達(dá)613.84和319.57 ng/L。研究異嗅物質(zhì)的來源與遷移轉(zhuǎn)化可以更好地對(duì)異嗅物質(zhì)進(jìn)行控制和預(yù)測(cè)。
1.1 異嗅物質(zhì)的主要來源及影響因素
早在1891年,Berthelot等發(fā)現(xiàn)土壤中引起土霉味的物質(zhì)能夠從土壤中蒸餾出來并且可能是中性的,但是他們并不知道這些物質(zhì)是怎樣產(chǎn)生的[6]。當(dāng)微生物純培養(yǎng)技術(shù)出現(xiàn)時(shí),人們將對(duì)于這種異嗅物質(zhì)來源研究的目光投向了放線菌[7]。此后,大量的研究證明了放線菌確實(shí)能夠產(chǎn)生異嗅物質(zhì),但是對(duì)于異嗅物質(zhì)的結(jié)構(gòu)并沒有研究[8-9]。1963年,Gaines等[10]對(duì)鏈霉菌屬的代謝產(chǎn)物進(jìn)行研究后提出假設(shè),異嗅物質(zhì)是一些小分子化合物的組合,如醋酸、乙醛、乙醇、異丁醇等。1965年,Gerber等[7]最早從鏈霉菌屬等放線菌中分離并提純出一種異嗅物質(zhì),將其命名為Geosmin,ge在希臘語中的意思是土地,而osmin的意思是味道。1969年,Medsker等[11]從放線菌培養(yǎng)物中分離出另一種常見的土霉味物質(zhì)MIB。因而,人們對(duì)土霉味物質(zhì)MIB和GSM來源的研究最初主要集中在放線菌上。
1967,Safferman等[12]在Symplocaniuscorum屬絲狀藍(lán)藻菌IU 617存儲(chǔ)培養(yǎng)的常規(guī)轉(zhuǎn)移中檢測(cè)到一種土霉味物質(zhì),其味道與之前文獻(xiàn)發(fā)現(xiàn)放線菌產(chǎn)生的嗅味相同。因此,藍(lán)藻菌也被認(rèn)為是異嗅物質(zhì)的來源之一,直到1976年Tabachek等[13]調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn)藍(lán)藻菌可能是比放線菌更頻繁的來源。后來,越來越多的文獻(xiàn)調(diào)查發(fā)現(xiàn)在能進(jìn)行光合作用的水體環(huán)境中,藍(lán)藻是MIB和GSM的主要來源[14-16]。Izaguirre等[17]從1990年至1992年對(duì)美國(guó)金字塔湖進(jìn)行連續(xù)三年的調(diào)查,發(fā)現(xiàn)約40種藍(lán)藻菌能夠產(chǎn)生MIB和GSM,主要包括浮游的項(xiàng)圈藻、束絲藻屬、假魚腥藻屬、水底席藻屬、顫藻屬和林氏藻屬等。目前,共發(fā)現(xiàn)有2 000余種藍(lán)藻菌能夠產(chǎn)生MIB和GSM[18]。
一些研究常常把微生物數(shù)目做為異嗅物質(zhì)追蹤的辦法。如有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)淡水湖中GSM的季節(jié)性濃度和束絲藻屬的數(shù)目有著正相關(guān)的關(guān)系[19],而Jones等[20]在對(duì)澳大利亞的Hay Weir壩和Carcoar壩的研究中發(fā)現(xiàn),對(duì)于項(xiàng)圈藻也有著相似的結(jié)果。但是也有文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道,項(xiàng)圈藻的數(shù)目與異嗅物質(zhì)的濃度相關(guān)性并不大[21]。除此之外,有文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道在同一水體中不同的水層中異嗅物質(zhì)的濃度也存在極大的不同:在好氧的湖面溫水層(Oxic epilimnion)GSM的濃度為50 ng/L,而在缺氧的湖底靜水層(Anoxic hypolimnion)GSM的濃度則高達(dá)950 ng/L[22]。大量的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在實(shí)驗(yàn)室環(huán)境下MIB和GSM在放線菌及藍(lán)藻中的產(chǎn)率主要與光照強(qiáng)度、溫度、氧含量及離子強(qiáng)度等有關(guān)[23-29]。如Dionigi等[26]研究了溫度對(duì)鏈霉菌生長(zhǎng)和產(chǎn)生GSM的影響,發(fā)現(xiàn)鏈霉菌在30~45 ℃時(shí)比在15~20 ℃時(shí)培養(yǎng)2 d產(chǎn)生的GSM量大。Saadoun等[25]對(duì)不同溫度和光照強(qiáng)度下項(xiàng)圈藻屬的培養(yǎng)發(fā)現(xiàn),在20 ℃、光強(qiáng)度為17 μE/m2/s時(shí),GSM量/生物量達(dá)到了最大;而在一定溫度下,GSM量/葉綠素a量與光照強(qiáng)度呈正相關(guān)(r2=0.95),也就是說在一定的溫度下,增加光照強(qiáng)度會(huì)減少葉綠素a的合成而增加GSM的合成。但是沒有研究能夠獨(dú)立解釋在天然環(huán)境中異嗅物質(zhì)的產(chǎn)率有如此巨大的不同。可見,MIB和GSM的產(chǎn)生是一個(gè)很復(fù)雜的現(xiàn)象,受不同環(huán)境因素的影響,不能單純把微生物數(shù)目或其他某一因素當(dāng)做影響異嗅物質(zhì)濃度的唯一指標(biāo)。
除受光照、溫度及離子強(qiáng)度等因素影響外,異嗅物質(zhì)的產(chǎn)生還受許多其他因素的影響。1985年,Wood等[30]發(fā)現(xiàn)水庫中的微白黃鏈霉菌需在有沉淀物質(zhì)或者植物殘骸等營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)存在的條件下才能產(chǎn)生MIB。隨后,Sugiura等[31]發(fā)現(xiàn)沉淀藍(lán)藻和硅藻細(xì)胞也能為水底鏈霉菌產(chǎn)生揮發(fā)性有機(jī)物(VOCs)提供很好的底物。也有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在放線菌的生長(zhǎng)階段與非生長(zhǎng)階段異嗅物質(zhì)的產(chǎn)量也存在巨大的差異[32]。
1.2 異嗅物質(zhì)的生物合成機(jī)制
1981年,Bentley等[33]對(duì)鏈霉菌屬進(jìn)行放射性標(biāo)記實(shí)驗(yàn),在培養(yǎng)過程中加入含有放射性醋酸鉛,在兩種物質(zhì)中都檢測(cè)到了示蹤元素,由此認(rèn)為存在異戊二烯的合成過程。后續(xù)在培養(yǎng)液中加入帶有示蹤元素甲基的蛋氨酸,在MIB中也發(fā)現(xiàn)了示蹤元素。最后得出結(jié)論:MIB是帶有甲基的單萜,GSM是失去了異丙基的倍半萜烯。
早期,在放線菌中的放射性實(shí)驗(yàn)都未能成功地得出GSM的生物合成路徑,在藍(lán)藻菌中的研究也是如此。雖然Cane等研究證明法尼基焦磷酸是環(huán)狀倍半萜烯的直接前體[34],但是早前的實(shí)驗(yàn)顯示在培養(yǎng)中加入法尼醇會(huì)抑制細(xì)菌和藍(lán)藻菌的生長(zhǎng)[35-36]。因此,法尼焦磷酸不能用作合成路徑研究的工具。直到近十年,其他合成前體的使用,才使GSM在放線菌中合成的研究有了重大進(jìn)展[37]。
Juttner等[37]綜合總結(jié)了大量的放射性標(biāo)記實(shí)驗(yàn)和基因?qū)嶒?yàn),對(duì)在微生物合成類異戊二烯(主要是GSM)途徑做出了以下總結(jié)(圖1):GSM的合成主要分為3個(gè)路徑,即2-甲基赤蘚糖醇-4-磷酸( 2-methylerythritol-4-phosphate,MEP) 路徑、甲羥戊酸( mevalonate,MVA) 路徑和L-亮氨酸路徑,MEP合成是最重要的一個(gè)路徑。Spitelle等[38]的實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果顯示:當(dāng)給予被氘化的脫氧木酮糖([5,4-2H2]1-deoxy-D-xylulose)而非甲羥戊酸內(nèi)酯([4,4,6,6,6-2H5]mevalolactone) 時(shí),鏈霉菌可產(chǎn)生被氘化的GSM,也驗(yàn)證了MEP路徑是主要的合成路徑。這個(gè)合成已經(jīng)從基因?qū)W和酶催化的角度在高等植物體內(nèi)得到很合理的解釋[39]。對(duì)于GSM在藍(lán)藻菌體內(nèi)的合成,MEP合成路徑的基因密碼已經(jīng)在集胞藻屬PCC6803體內(nèi)被發(fā)現(xiàn)[40]。雖然這種藻類并沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)能夠產(chǎn)生GSM,但從側(cè)面說明在能夠產(chǎn)生GSM的藍(lán)藻中有著相同的類異戊二醇合成路徑。
雖然在許多細(xì)菌群中,MEP路徑是主要合成類異戊二醇的路徑,但是有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在微生物體內(nèi)同時(shí)存在MVA合成路徑[36]。有研究表明,在一些鏈霉菌的活躍生長(zhǎng)階段主要是MEP路徑,而在靜止生長(zhǎng)階段主要是MVA路徑[41-42]。粘細(xì)菌也是一種主要應(yīng)用MVA路徑合成GSM的微生物,但是在這種微生物體內(nèi)還存在一個(gè)以L-亮氨酸為開始的次要合成路徑[43]。
MIB的生物合成途徑直到2007年才被發(fā)現(xiàn)。Dickschat等[44]用示蹤前體蛋氨酸([methyl-13C]methionine)喂養(yǎng)不同株系的粘細(xì)菌——侵蝕侏囊菌(Nannocystisexedens),對(duì)培養(yǎng)液的GC/MS分析顯示,源自蛋氨酸的甲基被滲入到MIB中,其剩余的10個(gè)碳原子則由葉基焦磷酸(geranyl diphosphate,GPP,C10)衍生而來,即GPP甲基化形成新的生物合成中間體2-methyl-GPP,再經(jīng)環(huán)化形成MIB。
圖1 MIB和GSM在鏈霉菌和粘細(xì)菌中產(chǎn)生的簡(jiǎn)化合成圖
2.1 異嗅物質(zhì)從微生物胞內(nèi)到胞外的轉(zhuǎn)移
藍(lán)藻菌屬在生長(zhǎng)階段合成的這兩種物質(zhì)是儲(chǔ)存在細(xì)胞體內(nèi)還是釋放出來取決于微生物的生長(zhǎng)階段和環(huán)境因素,大多數(shù)的異嗅物質(zhì)在藍(lán)藻菌死亡后通過生物降解釋放出來[45]。Juttner等[37]認(rèn)為這種現(xiàn)象能夠發(fā)生,是因?yàn)楫愋嵛镔|(zhì)本身相對(duì)于異嗅物質(zhì)生產(chǎn)者的其他細(xì)胞成分來說,更不容易被水中的大部分細(xì)菌降解。
Durrer等[46]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),當(dāng)束絲藻(Aphanizomenongracile)被甲殼綱動(dòng)物低額蚤(Simocephalus)或水蚤(Daphniamagna)擦傷后,細(xì)胞體內(nèi)的GSM幾乎完全釋放出來[46]。因此,除了藍(lán)藻菌死亡后被降解釋放出異嗅物質(zhì)外,一些水底食草類動(dòng)物的食草活動(dòng)也會(huì)使異嗅物質(zhì)從藍(lán)藻體內(nèi)大量地釋放出來。
2.2 異嗅物質(zhì)在天然水體中的遷移轉(zhuǎn)化
有機(jī)污染物在水環(huán)境中一般通過生物降解作用、揮發(fā)作用、光解作用、吸附作用等過程進(jìn)行遷移轉(zhuǎn)化[47]。對(duì)于MIB和GSM生物降解的研究最早始于1970年[48]。比較早期的一些文獻(xiàn)主要報(bào)道了能夠?qū)IB和GSM這兩種物質(zhì)進(jìn)行生物降解的微生物的分離和鑒定(表1)。
表1 能夠?qū)IB和GSM進(jìn)行降解的微生物[49]
Table 1 Microorganisms implicated in the biodegradation of GSM and MIB
MIBGSM微生物參考文獻(xiàn)微生物參考文獻(xiàn)Pseudomonasspp.[50?52]Bacilluscereus[48,58]Pseudomonasaeruginosa[51]Bacillussubtilis[57?58]Pseudomonasputida[53]Arthrobacteratrocyaneus[59]Enterobacterspp.[52]Arthrobacterglobiformis[59]Candidaspp.[54]Rhodococcusmoris[59]Flavobacteriummultivorum[51] Chlorophenolicus strainN?1053[59] Flavobacteriumspp.[51]Bacillusspp.[55?56]Bacillussubtilis[57]
有文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道MIB和GSM能被自來水廠砂濾過程中的假單胞菌和鞘氨醇單胞菌降解[60-62]。Aoyama等[63]和Lupton等[64]發(fā)現(xiàn)假單胞菌與項(xiàng)圈藻屬是共存體。所以,生物降解作用可能是影響水中異嗅物質(zhì)濃度的最重要的作用。
Trudgill[65]和Rittmann等[66]認(rèn)為MIB和GSM能夠被降解是因?yàn)樗麄冇兄c醇和酮相似的結(jié)構(gòu)。僅有東京某一科研機(jī)構(gòu)對(duì)于MIB和GSM的代謝產(chǎn)物結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)行了研究。Tanaka等[52]利用氣相-質(zhì)譜聯(lián)用(GC-MS)對(duì)MIB的脫水產(chǎn)物進(jìn)行鑒定,結(jié)果顯示有兩種可能的脫水產(chǎn)物:2-甲基莰烯和2-甲基烯莰烷,認(rèn)為MIB的代謝途徑可能與莰酮相似。對(duì)于GSM,Saito等分析鑒定有4種可能的代謝產(chǎn)物,其中兩種被鑒定為1,4a-二甲基-2,3,4,4a,5,6,7,8-八氫萘(1,4a-dimethyl-2,3,4,4a,5,6,7,8-octahydronaphthalene)和烯酮,這兩種物質(zhì)同時(shí)也能用于GSM的化學(xué)合成。同時(shí),他們認(rèn)為GSM的代謝途徑可能與環(huán)己醇相似[67]。到目前為止,對(duì)這兩種物質(zhì)的生物降解途徑都沒有明確的依據(jù)。
Westerhoff等[68]通過對(duì)美國(guó)Bartlett、Saguaro、Pleasant三大湖的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),MIB和GSM的生物降解符合偽零及動(dòng)力學(xué)模型,其生物降解率在0.8~1.2 ng/(L·d)之間。然而,Rittmann等[65]卻認(rèn)為MIB和GSM在自然水體中被當(dāng)做二級(jí)底物使用是因?yàn)樽匀凰w中天然有機(jī)物(NOM)的濃度遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)高于這兩種物質(zhì)的濃度,因此認(rèn)為這兩種物質(zhì)的在天然水體中的生物降解符合二級(jí)動(dòng)力學(xué)模型。
MIB和GSM能夠發(fā)生光解,MIB和GSM在高強(qiáng)度紫外光照下的直接和催化光解有了大量的研究,這兩種物質(zhì)在中壓10 000 J/m2紫外燈照射下能達(dá)到20%以上的去除率,當(dāng)加入5 mg/L的H2O2時(shí),去除率能達(dá)到40%以上;當(dāng)紫外強(qiáng)度提高到101 000 J/m2并加入適當(dāng)?shù)腍2O2或臭氧時(shí),幾乎能夠全部去除MIB和GSM[72-74]。但沒有文獻(xiàn)對(duì)這兩種物質(zhì)的陽光直射光解進(jìn)行定量研究報(bào)道。李林等[75]將MIB溶液在冰浴條件下進(jìn)行陽光直射3 h,并在暗室條件下做對(duì)照試驗(yàn),發(fā)現(xiàn)MIB的光解幾乎可以忽略。
利用粉末活性炭對(duì)MIB和GSM進(jìn)行吸附是目前水廠比較常用的一種去除這兩種異嗅物質(zhì)的方法。但是在常常發(fā)生異嗅物質(zhì)污染的水體如水庫和湖泊中,水體比較澄清,吸附作用不太明顯[68]。此外,水體中存在的較高濃度天然有機(jī)物(NOM)對(duì)濃度較低的MIB和GSM產(chǎn)生競(jìng)爭(zhēng)吸附,使得水體中的懸浮顆粒對(duì)MIB和GSM的吸附效率變低[76]。
2.3 異嗅化合物進(jìn)入水產(chǎn)動(dòng)物體內(nèi)的途徑
水體中某些能夠引起異嗅的化學(xué)物質(zhì)會(huì)進(jìn)入水產(chǎn)動(dòng)物體內(nèi),其主要途徑包括通過動(dòng)物的鰓及皮膚吸收和通過攝食被水產(chǎn)動(dòng)物肌肉吸收[77]。異嗅物質(zhì)發(fā)生滲透主要通過水產(chǎn)動(dòng)物的鰓還是通過攝食吸收取決于異嗅物質(zhì)的辛烷/水分配系數(shù)(KOW)。當(dāng)log KOW低于6時(shí),主要通過鰓吸收,大于6時(shí)主要通過攝食吸收[78]。而MIB和GSM的log KOW分別為3.31和3.57,因此這兩種物質(zhì)主要通過鰓吸收[79]。異嗅物質(zhì)通過鰓吸收進(jìn)入魚體內(nèi)是可逆的,當(dāng)將含有異嗅的魚放入清水中時(shí),異嗅物質(zhì)就會(huì)從魚體內(nèi)進(jìn)入到水中,但其速度要比進(jìn)入魚體內(nèi)慢的多,完全去除異嗅需要幾天[7]。
水中異嗅物質(zhì)的研究是一個(gè)多學(xué)科交叉研究領(lǐng)域,涉及分析化學(xué)、生態(tài)學(xué)、基因?qū)W、化學(xué)動(dòng)力學(xué)、統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)學(xué)及湖泊學(xué)等多個(gè)學(xué)科領(lǐng)域。雖然目前國(guó)外對(duì)其已有大量及全面的研究,但仍有許多研究處于假設(shè)或者未知階段,需要通過實(shí)驗(yàn)進(jìn)一步驗(yàn)證和解決,如:①現(xiàn)在的研究認(rèn)為MIB和GSM主要是藍(lán)藻和放線菌代謝產(chǎn)生,但是不是有真核生物或者其他途徑也有可能產(chǎn)生這兩種物質(zhì)并沒有被報(bào)道;②在影響異嗅物質(zhì)產(chǎn)生的因素中,怎樣才能抑制異嗅物質(zhì)在天然水體中的產(chǎn)生;③MIB和GSM遷移轉(zhuǎn)化過程中,各種生物和物理過程產(chǎn)生的作用和其各所占比例并未見報(bào)道。
因此,關(guān)于水中異嗅物質(zhì)MIB和GSM仍然還有許多方面需要研究。包括:①對(duì)MIB、GSM和其他異嗅物質(zhì)來源更加深入和全面地研究;②如何在水中異嗅物質(zhì)爆發(fā)季節(jié)做好預(yù)防工作,有效減少水中異嗅事件的發(fā)生;③比較不同途徑處理異嗅物質(zhì)的效果、速率和成本,以便在水中異嗅物質(zhì)爆發(fā)時(shí),幫助快速處理和控制異嗅物質(zhì),減輕異嗅事件對(duì)水廠、居民用水的影響。在我國(guó)這是一個(gè)剛剛發(fā)展的研究領(lǐng)域,隨著人們對(duì)生活要求的提高,異嗅問題將成為研究熱點(diǎn)。
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Resource, Migration & Transformation of Two Main Off-Flavor Compounds in Natural Water
LI Chong-wei1, ZOU Pan1, YANG Zhao-guang1, 2, LI Hai-pu1
(1.Schl.ofChem. &Chem.Engin.,ZhongnanUni.,Changsha410083; 2.ShenzhenRes.Inst.ofZhongnanUni.,Shenzhen518057)
In recent years, the issue of taste and odor (T&O) in water attracts people’s attention. Study has found that the main T&O compounds in natural waters were volatile secondary metabolite produced by microbes and algae. In this paper, the resource and biosynthesis of two main off-flavor compounds, 2-methylisoborneol and geosmin (GSM), in natural aqueous matrices were reviewed. In addition, the migration and transformation of these two off-flavor compounds in natural water by means of absorption, volatilization, photolysis, biodegradation were introduced. The transfer pathway of these two compounds into aquatic life was also discussed in this paper.
volatile secondary metabolite; off-flavor compounds; geosmin; 2-methylisoborneol; fate
國(guó)家自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(21277175);深圳市戰(zhàn)略性新興產(chǎn)業(yè)發(fā)展專項(xiàng)資金項(xiàng)目(JCYJ20120618164317119)
李沖煒 男,碩士研究生。主要從事水體異嗅物質(zhì)的匯源及控制方面研究。E-mail:132311085@csu.edu.cn
* 通訊作者。女,教授,博士生導(dǎo)師。研究方向?yàn)轱嬘盟踩?。Tel:0731-88876961,E-mail:lihaipu@csu.edu.cn
2015-11-12;
2015-12-28
Q939.9; X-1
A
1005-7021(2016)02-0074-07
10.3969/j.issn.1005-7021.2016.02.013