周開升,朱彥東,張海鴻,伍亞民
·綜述·
Ski在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中的作用及機制的研究進展①
周開升1,2,朱彥東1,2,張海鴻2,伍亞民1
Ski作為一種進化保守蛋白,在不同物種中廣泛參與并調(diào)節(jié)多種細胞的增殖及分化過程。Ski在胚胎神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)發(fā)育、中樞及周圍神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)病變中發(fā)揮一定作用,可能涉及轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子-β及其超家族成員之一骨形態(tài)形成蛋白信號通路。
ski;神經(jīng)系統(tǒng);機制;綜述
[本文著錄格式]周開升,朱彥東,張海鴻,等.Ski在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中的作用及機制的研究進展[J].中國康復理論與實踐,2016,22 (7):797-800.
CITED AS:Zhou KS,Zhu YD,Zhang HH,et al.Role and mechanism of ski in nervous system(review)[J].Zhongguo Kangfu Lilun Yu Shijian,2016,22(7):797-800.
ski最早被發(fā)現(xiàn)存在于不同亞型Sloan-Kettering病毒基因組中的一段特異性基因序列,可以介導雞胚成纖維細胞的轉(zhuǎn)化[1-2],稱之為v-ski,而將雞來源的同系物稱為c-ski。數(shù)據(jù)顯示c-ski在禽類和哺乳動物的進化中相對保守,預示著它在除雞以外的其他物種中發(fā)揮重要作用[1]。迄今為止,ski及其家族成員已經(jīng)被發(fā)現(xiàn)廣泛存在于人類[3]、非洲爪蟾屬[4]、大鼠[5]、小鼠[6]、斑馬魚[7]、果蠅[8]等物種中,并發(fā)揮廣泛的作用。
近年來,關(guān)于ski及其家族成員的結(jié)構(gòu)、在不同系統(tǒng)或組織中的作用及機制的研究較多,尤其在肝臟再生[9]、多種腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展[10-12]、血管平滑肌的增殖及骨骼肌的分化[13-14]、傷口愈合[5,15]等領(lǐng)域,已有大量研究報道。有研究證實,ski在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中也發(fā)揮著重要的作用。
早期研究證實,ski在不同物種胚胎神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的發(fā)生發(fā)展中起重要作用。在非洲爪蟾屬中,ski(Xski)貫穿整個胚胎的早期發(fā)育過程[16]。Amaravadi等發(fā)現(xiàn),在非洲爪蟾屬動物胚胎中,Xski的過量表達會使細胞自發(fā)形成次級神經(jīng)軸:他們將Xski RNA注射入外胚層細胞,觀察到異位神經(jīng)管樣結(jié)構(gòu)的形成,證實ski在脊椎動物神經(jīng)發(fā)育過程中起重要作用,并將ski變異與人類的神經(jīng)管缺損性疾病聯(lián)系起來[4]。
骨形態(tài)形成蛋白(bone morphogenetic protein,BMP)作為一種表皮誘導因子,同時也是神經(jīng)形成的負性調(diào)控物質(zhì)。Wang等發(fā)現(xiàn),在蟾蜍和哺乳動物細胞中,ski可以直接作用并抑制BMP特異的Smad復合體的活性,抑制BMP信號通路以及BMP相關(guān)基因的表達;蟾蜍胚胎中,ski通過此作用途徑促進外胚層組織的神經(jīng)化過程[17]。在斑馬魚中,ski在神經(jīng)圖式形成過程中也發(fā)揮著重要作用[7]。
Lyons等發(fā)現(xiàn),c-ski在小鼠胚胎及出生后的絕大多數(shù)組織中都有低水平表達,但在胚胎發(fā)育的不同時期,c-ski在神經(jīng)嵴細胞、室管膜層、大腦皮層及嗅球組織中表達較高,出生后在海馬及小腦顆粒細胞層中依然可以檢測到,這同樣提示ski在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)形成及發(fā)育中發(fā)揮著不可或缺的作用[18]。Berk等將胚胎干細胞ski破壞后培養(yǎng)出ski表達缺失的小鼠,發(fā)現(xiàn)ski對小鼠顱腦及面部形態(tài)的正常發(fā)育至關(guān)重要,ski缺失小鼠在出生后即死于腦外露,也就是臨床疾病中的顱神經(jīng)管缺損[19]。他們還在ski缺失的胚胎顱神經(jīng)管中發(fā)現(xiàn)細胞過度凋亡及巢蛋白表達減少。Colmenares等的研究同樣證實ski在顱神經(jīng)管發(fā)育中的重要作用[20]。
施萬細胞是周圍神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中有重要作用的膠質(zhì)細胞,可以保護軸突,并為髓鞘的形成提供支持。在胚胎發(fā)育過程中,施萬細胞增殖并沿軸突遷移,將神經(jīng)叢分割為小的神經(jīng)纖維束。神經(jīng)損傷后,遠端軸突退化并脫髓鞘;髓鞘再生被認為是衡量神經(jīng)損傷修復的重要指標之一。Atanasoski等發(fā)現(xiàn),ski高選擇性表達于成髓鞘的施萬細胞,通過抑制轉(zhuǎn)化生長因子-β(transforming growth factor-beta,TGF-β)信號通路,調(diào)控施萬細胞的增殖及成髓鞘[21]。功能性ski過表達可以抑制由TGF-β介導的細胞增殖,并阻止生長停止的施萬細胞再次進入細胞周期。神經(jīng)損傷后,成髓鞘的施萬細胞中ski表達上調(diào),并出現(xiàn)髓鞘再生;而在ski表達缺失的動物中,髓鞘再生明顯受到抑制,且編碼髓磷脂成分的基因表達顯著下調(diào);相反,ski高表達的施萬細胞中這些基因表達較高。這些證據(jù)證明ski是調(diào)控施萬細胞增殖和成髓鞘過程的關(guān)鍵信號。
膠質(zhì)瘤是臨床最常見的腦腫瘤,依據(jù)病理和預后分為4級,其中膠質(zhì)母細胞瘤(glioblastoma,GBM)屬于Ⅳ級,是惡性程度最高的膠質(zhì)瘤。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),TGF-β在GBM的發(fā)生及發(fā)展過程中起重要的促進作用[22]。Jiang等發(fā)現(xiàn),敲除ski后,TGF-β1受體的表達增加,并促進Smad3的磷酸化,從而激活GBM細胞中的TGF-β信號通路[23]。同時他們還發(fā)現(xiàn)另一細胞信號調(diào)節(jié)分子miR-127-3p通過ski激活GBM中TGF-β信號通路,預示著ski和miR-127-3p可以作為治療GBM的重要靶點。還有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),ski是保持胼胝體神經(jīng)元特異性的關(guān)鍵分子[24],c-ski家族成員Corl2/Skor2也可促進小腦浦肯野細胞的分化[25]。
ski已被證明可以在很多信號通路中發(fā)揮廣泛作用[10],如TGF-β信號通路[26]及其超家族成員之一BMP信號通路、核激素受體信號通路[27]、Sonic hedgehog(Shh)信號通路[28]等,其中ski調(diào)控TGF-β信號通路和BMP信號通路并在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中發(fā)揮作用已經(jīng)得到相關(guān)實驗的驗證。
4.1TGF-β
TGF-β信號通路是ski賴以發(fā)揮作用的重要信號通路之一。ski的經(jīng)典作用之一是對TGF-β信號通路的負性調(diào)控[26],而TGF-β信號通路在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中發(fā)揮著重要的作用,這就預示著ski可能通過此途徑在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中發(fā)揮其調(diào)控作用。
TGF-β是一種多功能細胞因子,廣泛參與中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的生理及病理生理過程,包括在腦損傷、腦缺氧后,以及神經(jīng)退行性病變中調(diào)節(jié)并緩解炎癥反應[29],并被認為有神經(jīng)保護作用。但也有研究表明TGF-β可抑制神經(jīng)前體細胞的增殖[30],這就可能限制了神經(jīng)損傷后的自我修復作用。TGF-β1似乎不僅可以抑制星形膠質(zhì)細胞的增殖,而且可以促進其分化[31-32]。同樣,TGF-β可以抑制少突膠質(zhì)細胞[33]和小膠質(zhì)細胞[34]的增殖;還有大量研究證明TGF-β與腦腫瘤的發(fā)生發(fā)展密切相關(guān)[30]。但ski是否通過TGF-β參與中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中更多過程,還有待進一步研究。
TGF-β被證明在周圍神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)也有特定的作用。早在1989年,Ridley等就發(fā)現(xiàn)TGF-β1和TGF-β2都可以促進施萬細胞的增殖[35]。Awatramani等發(fā)現(xiàn),TGF-β1抑制施萬細胞成髓鞘并抑制成髓鞘相關(guān)蛋白的表達[36]?;趕ki可以負性調(diào)控TGF-β信號通路的原理,Atanasoski等發(fā)現(xiàn),ski是調(diào)控施萬細胞增殖及成髓鞘機制中的主要成分,提出ski的功能性過表達可以抑制TGF-β介導的細胞增殖,阻止生長停止期的施萬細胞重新進入細胞周期并上調(diào)髓磷脂相關(guān)基因的表達[21]。ski的這一作用為進一步認識周圍神經(jīng)損傷及脫髓鞘性疾病提供了新的思路。
4.2BMP
BMP是TGF-β超家族成員之一。早期研究認為它是具有成骨作用的細胞因子,后來的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)它在脊椎動物和非脊椎動物體內(nèi)發(fā)揮著廣泛的生物學作用。BMP信號通路控制著胚胎發(fā)生過程的關(guān)鍵步驟,尤其在脊椎動物中樞和周圍神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的形成和分化中發(fā)揮重要作用[37]。
BMP在神經(jīng)發(fā)育的不同階段有不同作用。初期,BMP的抑制可以從外胚層中分化出神經(jīng)外胚層;隨后,神經(jīng)嵴的誘導、神經(jīng)嵴細胞的遷移以及脊髓的圖式形成需要一定水平的BMP;在隨后的階段中,BMP信號通路可以促進星形膠質(zhì)細胞形成,同時抑制神經(jīng)元和少突膠質(zhì)細胞系的行為。BMP信號通路的功能異常對各種神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)病理變化及其修復過程產(chǎn)生重要影響[38]。
研究表明,ski可以抑制蟾蜍和哺乳動物細胞內(nèi)的BMP信號通路[39]。早在1997年,Amaravadi等就發(fā)現(xiàn)ski可以誘導次級神經(jīng)軸的形成和神經(jīng)特異性基因的表達[4]。Wang等將人類ski導入光滑爪蟾囊胚期的胚胎組織中,培養(yǎng)后發(fā)現(xiàn)導入ski的組織中神經(jīng)標志物神經(jīng)細胞黏附分子的表達顯著增加,最終神經(jīng)化為神經(jīng)外胚層;而對照側(cè)胚胎不表達神經(jīng)細胞黏附分子,并最終發(fā)展為上皮化組織[17]。這一功能是通過ski對BMP信號通路的抑制實現(xiàn)的。
BMP信號作用于細胞表面受體,并刺激下游的Smad分子,使R-Smad(Smad1、Smad5、Smad8)磷酸化;磷酸化的R-Smad與Smad4結(jié)合形成復合體,之后轉(zhuǎn)移入細胞核,調(diào)節(jié)靶基因的表達。ski可以破壞R-Smad-Smad4復合體,并募集轉(zhuǎn)錄輔阻遏物,抑制BMP信號對其靶基因的激活,從而實現(xiàn)在蟾蜍胚胎體內(nèi)使外胚層神經(jīng)化的作用。
自原癌基因ski被發(fā)現(xiàn)至今,它在腫瘤發(fā)生、創(chuàng)傷愈合、肝臟再生等多個領(lǐng)域的研究日趨成熟,并且在越來越多的組織和器官中發(fā)揮著特有的功能。雖然早期的少量研究證實ski在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中發(fā)揮著特定的作用,但近年鮮有ski在該領(lǐng)域的進一步研究報道。ski作為一種細胞類型特異性多功能分子,尤其在調(diào)控細胞增殖、分化及凋亡等方面,可能在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)相關(guān)疾病中有著重要的科學價值和潛在應用前景。
目前我們依然面臨著一些亟待解決的問題。①現(xiàn)有的研究主要局限于胚胎的神經(jīng)發(fā)育方面,而在成體神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)相關(guān)疾病中的研究相對較少。②鑒于ski表達及功能的細胞特異性,有必要著手檢測ski在各神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)及組織中的表達情況,包括在各種生理及病理條件下的表達規(guī)律、在時間及空間上的表達變化。③ski在神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)中發(fā)揮作用的機制依然不是十分清楚,已知的一些作用機制尚不深入,有待進一步研究。
[1]Li Y,Turck CM,Teumer JK,et al.Unique sequence,ski,in Sloan-Kettering avian retroviruses with properties of a new cell-derived oncogene[J].J Virol,1986,57(3):1065-1072.
[2]Stavnezer E,Barkas AE,Brennan LA,et al.Transforming Sloan-Kettering viruses generated from the cloned v-ski oncogene by in vitro and in vivo recombinations[J].J Virol,1986,57(3):1073-1083.
[3]Nomura N,Sasamoto S,Ishii S,et al.Isolation of human cDNA clones of ski and the ski-related gene,sno[J].Nucleic Acids Res,1989,17(14):5489-5500.
[4]Amaravadi LS,Neff AW,Sleeman JP,et al.Autonomous neural axis formation by ectopic expression of the protooncogene c-ski[J].Dev Biol,1997,192(2):392-404.
[5]Li P,Liu P,Xiong RP,et al.Ski,a modulator of wound healing and scar formation in the rat skin and rabbit ear[J].J Pathol, 2011,223(5):659-671.
[6]Namciu S,Lyons GE,Micales BK,et al.Enhanced expression of mouse c-ski accompanies terminal skeletal muscle differentiation in vivo and in vitro[J].Dev Dyn,1995,204(3):291-300.
[7]Kaufman CD,Martinez-Rodriguez G,Hackett PB Jr.Ectopic expression of c-ski disrupts gastrulation and neural patterning in zebrafish[J].Mech Dev,2000,95(1-2):147-162.
[8]Barrio R,Lopez-Varea A,Casado M,et al.Characterization of dSnoN and its relationship to Decapentaplegic signaling in Drosophila[J].Dev Biol,2007,306(1):66-81.
[9]Macias-Silva M,Li W,Leu JI,et al.Up-regulated transcriptional repressors SnoN and Ski bind Smad proteins to antagonize transforming growth factor-beta signals during liver regeneration[J].J Biol Chem,2002,277(32):28483-28490.
[10]Bonnon C,Atanasoski S.c-Ski in health and disease[J].Cell Tissue Res,2012,347(1):51-64.
[11]Xie M,Wu X,He C,et al.Ski is silenced by methylation and acts as tumor suppressor in non-small cell lung cancer[J].Oncotarget,2015.[Epub ahead of print].
[12]Rashidian J,Le SE,Ji X,et al.Ski regulates Hippo and TAZ signaling to suppress breast cancer progression[J].Sci Signal,2015,8(363):ra14.[Epub ahead of print].
[13]Li J,Li P,Zhang Y,et al.c-Ski inhibits the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells via suppressing Smad3 signaling but stimulating p38 pathway[J].Cell Signal,2013,25(1):159-167. [14]Colmenares C,Stavnezer E.The ski oncogene induces muscle differentiation in quail embryo cells[J].Cell,1989,59(2): 293-303.
[15]Liu X,Li P,Chen XY,et al.c-Ski promotes skin fibroblast proliferation but decreases type I collagen:implications for wound healing and scar formation[J].Clin Exp Dermatol,2010,35(4):417-424.
[16]Sleeman JP,Laskey RA.Xenopus c-ski contains a novel coiled-coil protein domain,and is maternally expressed during development[J].Oncogene,1993,8(1):67-77.
[17]Wang W,Mariani FV,Harland RM,et al.Ski represses bone morphogenic protein signaling in Xenopus and mammalian cells[J].ProcNatl AcadSciUS A,2000,97(26): 14394-14399.
[18]Lyons GE,Micales BK,Herr MJ,et al.Protooncogene c-ski is expressed in both proliferating and postmitotic neuronal populations[J].Dev Dyn,1994,201(4):354-365.
[19]Berk M,Desai SY,Heyman HC,et al.Mice lacking the ski proto-oncogene have defects in neurulation,craniofacial,pat-terning,and skeletal muscle development[J].Genes Dev,1997,11(16):2029-2039.
[20]Colmenares C,Heilstedt HA,Shaffer LG,et al.Loss of the SKI proto-oncogene in individuals affected with 1p36 deletion syndrome is predicted by strain-dependent defects in Ski-/-mice[J].Nat Genet,2002,30(1):106-109.
[21]Atanasoski S,Notterpek L,Lee HY,et al.The protooncogene Ski controls Schwann cell proliferation and myelination[J]. Neuron,2004,43(4):499-511.
[22]Joseph JV,Balasubramaniyan V,Walenkamp A,et al.TGF-beta as a therapeutic target in high grade gliomas-promises and challenges[J].Biochem Pharmacol,2013,85(4):478-485.
[23]Jiang H,Jin C,Liu J,et al.Next generation sequencing analysis of miRNAs:MiR-127-3p inhibits glioblastoma proliferation and activates TGF-beta signaling by targeting SKI[J].OMICS,2014,18(3):196-206.
[24]Baranek C,Dittrich M,Parthasarathy S,et al.Protooncogene Ski cooperates with the chromatin-remodeling factor Satb2 in specifying callosal neurons[J].Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,2012,109(9):3546-3551.
[25]Nakatani T,Minaki Y,Kumai M,et al.The c-Ski family member and transcriptional regulator Corl2/Skor2 promotes early differentiation of cerebellar Purkinje cells[J].Dev Biol,2014,388(1):68-80.
[26]Deheuninck J,Luo K.Ski and SnoN,potent negative regulators of TGF-beta signaling[J].Cell Res,2009,19(1):47-57.
[27]Zhao HL,Ueki N,Hayman MJ.The Ski protein negatively regulates Siah2-mediated HDAC3 degradation[J].Biochem Biophys Res Commun,2010,399(4):623-628.
[28]Dai P,Shinagawa T,Nomura T,et al.Ski is involved in transcriptional regulation by the repressor and full-length forms of Gli3[J].Genes Dev,2002,16(22):2843-2848.
[29]Boche D,Cunningham C,Docagne F,et al.TGF beta 1 regulates the inflammatory response during chronic neurodegeneration[J].Neurobiol Dis,2006,22(3):638-650.
[30]Buckwalter MS,Yamane M,Coleman BS,et al.Chronically increased transforming growth factor-beta1 strongly inhibits hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice[J].Am J Pathol,2006,169(1):154-164.
[31]de Sampaio e Spohr TC,Martinez R,da Silva EF,et al.Neuro-glia interaction effects on GFAP gene:a novel role for transforming growth factor-beta1[J].Eur J Neurosci,2002,16(11): 2059-2069.
[32]Sousa VO,Romao L,Neto VM,et al.Glial fibrillary acidic protein gene promoter is differently modulated by transforming growth factor-beta 1 in astrocytes from distinct brain regions[J].Eur J Neurosci,2004,19(7):1721-1730.
[33]McKinnon RD,Piras G,Ida JA Jr,et al.A role for TGF-beta in oligodendrocyte differentiation[J].J Cell Biol,1993,121 (6):1397-1407.
[34]Suzumura A,Sawada M,Yamamoto H,et al.Transforming growth factor-beta suppresses activation and proliferation of microglia in vitro[J].J Immunol,1993,151(4):2150-2158.
[35]Ridley AJ,Davis JB,Stroobant P,et al.Transforming growth factors-beta 1 and beta 2 are mitogens for rat Schwann cells[J].J Cell Biol,1989,109(6 Pt 2):3419-3424.
[36]Awatramani R,Shumas S,Kamholz J,et al.TGF beta1 modulates the phenotype of Schwann cells at the transcriptional level[J].Mol Cell Neurosci,2002,19(3):307-319.
[37]Liu A,Niswander LA.Bone morphogenetic protein signalling and vertebrate nervous system development[J].Nat Rev Neurosci,2005,6(12):945-954.
[38]Sabo JK,Kilpatrick TJ,Cate HS.Effects of bone morphogenic proteins on neural precursor cells and regulation during central nervous system injury[J].Neurosignals,2009,17(4): 255-264.
[39]Luo K.Negative regulation of BMP signaling by the ski oncoprotein[J].J Bone Joint SurgAm,2003,85-A(Suppl 3):39-43.
Role and Mechanism of Ski in Nervous System(review)
ZHOU Kai-sheng1,2,ZHU Yan-dong1,2,ZHANG Hai-hong2,WU Ya-min1
1.State Key Laboratory of Trauma,Burns and Combined Injury,the Third Department of Research Institute of Surgery,Daping Hospital,Third Military Medical University,Chongqing 400042,China;2.Department of Orthopedics,Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University,Lanzhou,Gansu 730030,China
Correspondence to WU Ya-min.E-mail:yaminwu65@hotmail.com
Ski,as an evolutionary conserved protein,is widely involoved in the proliferation and differentiation of many kinds of cells in different species.Ski also plays an irreplaceable role in many physiological and pathological processes of nervous system,including embryonic nervous system development,central and peripheral nervous system diseases,and so on,which may be assiciated with the signal pathways of transforming growth factor-beta and another family member bone morphogenetic protein.
ski;nervous system;mechanism;review
10.3969/j.issn.1006-9771.2016.07.012
R741
A
1006-9771(2016)07-0797-04
國家自然科學基金項目(No.30772299)。
1.第三軍醫(yī)大學大坪醫(yī)院野戰(zhàn)外科研究所三室,創(chuàng)傷、燒傷與復合傷國家重點實驗室,重慶市400042;2.蘭州大學第二醫(yī)院骨科,甘肅蘭州市730030。作者簡介:周開升(1990-),男,漢族,甘肅武威市人,碩士研究生,主要研究方向:脊柱脊髓損傷。通訊作者:伍亞民,男,博士,博士生導師,主要研究方向:脊柱脊髓損傷。E-mail:yaminwu65@hotmail.com。
2016-02-24
2016-03-14)