朱佳琪,馬躍文,陳銳
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脊髓損傷患者泌尿系感染研究進(jìn)展
朱佳琪,馬躍文,陳銳
[摘要]脊髓損傷患者的泌尿系感染通常與泌尿系結(jié)石、排空障礙以及應(yīng)用導(dǎo)尿管相關(guān),是創(chuàng)傷性或非創(chuàng)傷性脊髓損傷患者最常見的感染原因。反復(fù)泌尿系感染會引起腎功能損傷,而為了控制感染長期反復(fù)應(yīng)用抗生素可能導(dǎo)致多重耐藥菌定植進(jìn)一步惡化感染。因此,康復(fù)階段脊髓損傷患者泌尿系感染的預(yù)防、治療方案的確定顯得尤為重要。為了改善這類患者的預(yù)后,近年來各國研究者提出了許多新的臨床經(jīng)驗(yàn)及實(shí)驗(yàn)室方案,本文綜述對脊髓損傷后泌尿系感染診療相關(guān)研究,以期對臨床醫(yī)療提供借鑒。
[關(guān)鍵詞]脊髓損傷;泌尿系感染;診療方案;綜述
[本文著錄格式]朱佳琪,馬躍文,陳銳.脊髓損傷患者泌尿系感染研究進(jìn)展[J].中國康復(fù)理論與實(shí)踐,2016,22(6):676-679.
CITED AS:Zhu JQ,Ma YW,Chen R.Research progress of urinary tract infections in patients with spinal cord injury(review)[J].Zhongguo Kangfu Lilun Yu Shijian,2016,22(6):676-679.
泌尿系感染(urinary tract infections,UTIs)是指細(xì)菌侵襲尿道后,引起上皮細(xì)胞發(fā)生的炎癥反應(yīng),臨床表現(xiàn)為菌尿或膿尿(白細(xì)胞尿)。對于頸段、胸段及上腰段脊髓損傷患者,上位腦橋排尿中樞與下位神經(jīng)元的聯(lián)系損害,導(dǎo)致下尿路系統(tǒng)儲尿、控制及排空過程受到影響,從而發(fā)生神經(jīng)源性膀胱功能損害[1]。這種損害引發(fā)的膀胱內(nèi)壓增高、返流、結(jié)石以及神經(jīng)性梗阻會使得UTIs發(fā)生的可能大大提高[2]。隨著技術(shù)發(fā)展,醫(yī)生對脊髓損傷患者排尿管理越發(fā)重視,但泌尿系并發(fā)癥仍然是脊髓損傷患者第二種常見的致死原因[3]。因此,我們將近年脊髓損傷后UTIs治療研究進(jìn)展做一綜述,旨在為臨床工作提供一些新的思路。
外傷或非外傷性脊髓損傷患者中,UTIs的年發(fā)生率約為2.5次/人,其中繼發(fā)敗血癥并最終致死的患者約占15%[4],而常見致病菌包括假單胞菌屬、變形桿菌和沙雷氏菌屬[5]。Esclarin De Ruz等曾報道在合格的脊髓損傷UTIs患者尿液標(biāo)本中,45%可見大腸桿菌,36%為腸桿菌科,15%為銅綠假單胞菌,15%為不動桿菌,12%為腸球菌屬,6%為其他菌屬,還有26%為多菌株感染[6]。通過進(jìn)行膀胱沖洗試驗(yàn)及抗體包被試驗(yàn)可知,脊髓損傷患者在間歇導(dǎo)尿過程中,60%會出現(xiàn)下尿路細(xì)菌定植,40%出現(xiàn)上尿路細(xì)菌定植[7],但上尿路細(xì)菌定植引起膿尿(白細(xì)胞尿)的發(fā)生率遠(yuǎn)大于下尿路細(xì)菌定植者[8]。
膀胱及尿道括約肌神經(jīng)支配主要來源于腦橋和脊神經(jīng)骶段[9-10],因此頸段、胸段及腰段高位脊髓損傷患者通常存在上、下位神經(jīng)控制離斷或受損情況。骶段脊神經(jīng)中分布著Onuf核,這種核團(tuán)主要接受來自膀胱的傳入沖動,并通過S2-4神經(jīng)根將排尿沖動反饋給泌尿系統(tǒng)[11]。胸腰段脊神經(jīng)對排尿影響較小,但其中行走的交感神經(jīng)及副交感神經(jīng)功能紊亂會對膀胱頸的控制產(chǎn)生一定的干擾[12]。脊髓之上,腦干及雙側(cè)間腦構(gòu)成了主要的排尿控制中樞。其中,腦橋排尿中樞(Barrington核)位于腦橋嘴側(cè)背外側(cè)網(wǎng)狀結(jié)構(gòu)內(nèi),可以直接興奮膀胱運(yùn)動神經(jīng)元,松弛尿道括約肌開放尿路;中腦導(dǎo)水管周圍灰質(zhì)負(fù)責(zé)接受膀胱充盈信號,而下丘腦視前區(qū)則參與排尿起始的控制[13]??蹘Щ睾瓦\(yùn)動前區(qū)皮質(zhì)可以抑制下位中樞排尿反射[14]。脊髓損傷使得患者腦橋排尿中樞及上位大腦中樞抑制、調(diào)控泌尿系統(tǒng)排尿活動的功能受損,因此,只要脊髓損傷發(fā)生于骶段脊神經(jīng)以上,患者都會不同程度出現(xiàn)膀胱括約肌協(xié)同功能失調(diào)[15]。
3.1癥狀
脊髓損傷患者UTIs的早期診斷比較困難,因?yàn)樵擃惢颊咄ǔH笔TIs的典型癥狀,諸如尿頻、尿急、尿痛、排尿困難、下腹部感覺異常、腎區(qū)疼痛或感覺過敏等;而不典型癥狀諸如排尿習(xí)慣改變、膀胱殘尿量增加、尿臭、肌肉痙攣或不自主反射加劇更常見于該類患者[16]。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)大約45%的脊髓損傷患者發(fā)熱與UTIs相關(guān),因此臨床上大部分脊髓損傷患者UTIs被發(fā)現(xiàn)并重視的原因?yàn)槌霈F(xiàn)發(fā)熱[17]。
3.2實(shí)驗(yàn)室檢查
臨床上當(dāng)發(fā)現(xiàn)每毫升清潔中段尿樣品中細(xì)菌數(shù)≥105或細(xì)菌數(shù)<105但存在UTIs癥狀者,可以診斷為菌尿。當(dāng)清潔尿常規(guī)提示尿中白細(xì)胞>10/高倍視野時,臨床上可以診斷膿尿或白細(xì)胞尿,需要考慮患者存在UTIs的可能。Moser等研究顯示,大腸桿菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、臭鼻肺炎克雷伯菌、奇異變形桿菌、糞腸球菌及銅綠假單胞菌等致病菌血清沉淀抗體與患者脊髓損傷發(fā)病時間、UTIs的發(fā)生次數(shù)及留置尿管時間顯著相關(guān)[18]。而在假單胞菌屬細(xì)菌感染過程中,33%的患者出現(xiàn)免疫球蛋白IgG和/或IgA明顯增高(≥4倍)[17]。大于1%脊髓損傷UTIs患者會出現(xiàn)菌血癥或敗血癥,其中90%以上患者出現(xiàn)發(fā)熱,17%出現(xiàn)血壓降低,約15%患者死亡[19-20]。泌尿道醫(yī)療操作是發(fā)病危險因素之一,而四肢癱及完全性脊髓損傷相比普通脊髓損傷患者更容易因此被誘發(fā)菌血癥[21]。
4.1導(dǎo)尿管管理
對于在院脊髓損傷患者而言,留置導(dǎo)尿管是導(dǎo)致UTIs的重要原因之一,可能引起嚴(yán)重并發(fā)癥,延長住院時間,大量增加醫(yī)療費(fèi)用[22-23]。通過為期1年的隨訪發(fā)現(xiàn),導(dǎo)尿管相關(guān)UTIs及無癥狀菌尿的發(fā)生率約為每100人中每天發(fā)生2.7例和5例[24]。研究顯示,導(dǎo)尿管相關(guān)UTIs的發(fā)生率與UTIs診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)及導(dǎo)尿策略相關(guān)[25-26]。
4.1.1導(dǎo)尿管種類的選擇
用于制作導(dǎo)尿管的材料通常有乳膠、塑料、硅膠及四氟乙烯塑料,然而這些材料都不具有完全生物相容性,均可引起并發(fā)癥。相對而言,乳膠導(dǎo)管表面比硅膠導(dǎo)管更容易被細(xì)菌黏附,更有可能引起UTIs[27]。此外,乳膠導(dǎo)管更容易誘發(fā)機(jī)體內(nèi)毒性效應(yīng)及促炎反應(yīng),長期應(yīng)用可能導(dǎo)致息肉性膀胱炎[28]。硅膠導(dǎo)管雖然引起UTIs風(fēng)險較低,但因?yàn)橘|(zhì)地較硬,舒適感較差,從而降低患者依從性[29-30]。
為了提高導(dǎo)尿管的舒適性并降低感染風(fēng)險,近年來臨床上出現(xiàn)了三種主要涂層技術(shù),包括親水涂層、銀離子親水涂層和抗生素涂層導(dǎo)尿管。
親水涂層是一種可以提高導(dǎo)尿舒適性,減少微生物黏附,預(yù)防導(dǎo)尿管結(jié)殼的新興技術(shù)[31-32]。一項(xiàng)多中心隨機(jī)研究回顧了224例3個月內(nèi)發(fā)生創(chuàng)傷性脊髓損傷的間歇導(dǎo)尿患者,發(fā)現(xiàn)相比無涂層聚氯乙烯導(dǎo)尿管,應(yīng)用親水涂層導(dǎo)尿管可以明顯延遲首次UTIs的發(fā)生時間,并可以使日患UTIs風(fēng)險降低1/3[30]。
銀離子親水涂層技術(shù)主要應(yīng)用銀離子本身抗微生物屬性以控制UTIs風(fēng)險[33],已被證實(shí)可以降低短期院內(nèi)UTIs風(fēng)險[34]。但已有的數(shù)據(jù)并不能除外長期應(yīng)用銀離子涂層導(dǎo)尿管引起銀中毒可能,因此尚需臨床大樣本、長隨訪研究完善數(shù)據(jù)[35]。
同樣,抗生素涂層導(dǎo)尿管可以短期內(nèi)減少無癥狀菌尿的發(fā)生,但也缺少長時間隨訪數(shù)據(jù),并且還沒有證據(jù)支持抗生素涂層導(dǎo)尿管可以降低有癥狀UTIs發(fā)生風(fēng)險[25]。
4.1.2導(dǎo)尿方案的選擇
脊髓損傷后的尿潴留使得醫(yī)生需要為患者選擇適當(dāng)?shù)膶?dǎo)尿方案,只有掌握恰當(dāng)?shù)膶?dǎo)尿時機(jī),盡早拔除尿管并且注意導(dǎo)尿過程中無菌操作,才能有效降低導(dǎo)尿管相關(guān)UTIs風(fēng)險[4]。根據(jù)美國炎癥疾病協(xié)會意見,導(dǎo)尿僅適用于大量尿潴留(藥物治療無效)、尿失禁的臨終患者,需要嚴(yán)格監(jiān)測尿量的危重患者,以及長時間手術(shù)過程[25]。盡早拔除留置的尿管可以減少菌尿的發(fā)生。對于需要長期攜帶尿管的脊髓損傷患者,通常建議每2~4周常規(guī)更換尿管以降低UTIs風(fēng)險,一旦懷疑存在UTIs應(yīng)立刻更換尿管[36]。相比留置導(dǎo)尿,間歇導(dǎo)尿可以降低菌尿風(fēng)險(70%vs.98%)[37-38],但間隔時間過長反而會增加菌尿風(fēng)險[39]。目前間歇導(dǎo)尿的指導(dǎo)意見為每日最少間隔6h及睡前導(dǎo)尿1次,使膀胱殘余尿量小于400ml,以避免返流及感染[37]。
手清潔及消毒技術(shù)是一種簡單、有效的方式以減少護(hù)理相關(guān)感染,因此也被建議應(yīng)用于更換尿管的過程中[40]。但目前并沒有證據(jù)說明院內(nèi)醫(yī)療人員導(dǎo)尿相比家庭自主導(dǎo)尿所引起的UTIs風(fēng)險小。
4.2可疑泌尿系感染
對于攜帶導(dǎo)尿管無癥狀菌尿患者,在沒有確切診斷UTIs之前,為避免細(xì)菌耐藥不應(yīng)該應(yīng)用系統(tǒng)抗生素治療[41]。近年有研究提出,每周一次預(yù)防性交替口服抗生素可以明顯減少UTIs年發(fā)生率,并且不會增加抗生素副作用或?qū)е露嘀丶?xì)菌耐藥的風(fēng)險[42-43]。
4.3確診泌尿系感染
4.3.1抗生素治療
當(dāng)患者發(fā)生導(dǎo)尿相關(guān)UTIs時,應(yīng)用抗生素之前,臨床醫(yī)生需要做出的決定主要是:①應(yīng)用抗生素是否需要覆蓋尿培養(yǎng)結(jié)果中的所有病原體;②抗生素預(yù)計(jì)需要應(yīng)用多少長時間?美國感染疾病協(xié)會建議針對導(dǎo)尿管相關(guān)UTIs患者,應(yīng)該盡早拔除尿管,對于長期依賴導(dǎo)尿患者,可以應(yīng)用療程7~14d的抗生素[25]。大多數(shù)情況下醫(yī)生在選擇抗生素時都應(yīng)該以尿培養(yǎng)結(jié)果為依據(jù),傾向特異性高的窄譜抗生素,并且盡可能縮短抗生素用藥時間。但也有報道指出,對于社區(qū)獲得的嚴(yán)重UTIs,病原體相對復(fù)雜,可能需要應(yīng)用廣譜抗生素進(jìn)行覆蓋治療[44]。Everaert等建議,對于脊髓損傷患者,慢性期診斷UTIs但不伴發(fā)熱癥狀時只需應(yīng)用抗生素治療5d;急性期診斷UTIs但不伴發(fā)熱者可以應(yīng)用抗生素治療7d;診斷UTIs并伴隨發(fā)熱患者需要應(yīng)用抗生素治療14d。此外,他們還提出,根據(jù)當(dāng)?shù)刂虏【植记闆r,呋喃妥因和甲氧芐氨嘧啶適用于慢性脊髓損傷UTIs患者,而喹諾酮類和頭孢呋辛更適用于急性脊髓損傷UTIs患者[45]。
4.3.2細(xì)菌干擾技術(shù)
近年來,通過為膀胱接種非致病菌來抑制致病菌生長的技術(shù)引起了廣泛的關(guān)注。一項(xiàng)隨機(jī)研究顯示,為神經(jīng)源性膀胱患者接種非致病大腸桿菌可以顯著降低有癥狀UTIs一年發(fā)生率。但這種技術(shù)的療效十分依賴于接種細(xì)菌的定植能力,在該研究中,僅有37%患者成功接種益生菌[46]。細(xì)菌干擾技術(shù)的療效機(jī)制并不完全清楚,可能與非治病大腸桿菌廣泛抑制宿主核糖核酸聚合酶Ⅱ基因的表達(dá)相關(guān),從而減少體內(nèi)炎癥反應(yīng)和病原體免疫應(yīng)答的發(fā)生[47]。該技術(shù)尚未廣泛應(yīng)用主要原因在于:①接種設(shè)備及操作過程復(fù)雜,耗時數(shù)日;②益生菌接種后保持、維護(hù)困難,可能需要反復(fù)接種;③因?yàn)槟蛞簼B漏流出,患者配合依從有限。
泌尿系感染目前仍是脊髓損傷患者需要面對的一個重大健康隱患,泌尿系結(jié)構(gòu)功能的改變、頻繁的導(dǎo)尿、感覺功能障礙以及免疫功能下降,都使得該類患者難于早期診斷并獲得及時治療。如何才能更早地診斷,更好地預(yù)防、控制脊髓損傷患者UTIs依然是臨床亟待解決的問題。除了不斷改良導(dǎo)尿技術(shù)、應(yīng)用優(yōu)質(zhì)導(dǎo)尿管、掌握更換導(dǎo)尿管時機(jī)、盡量避免長期留置尿管、合理應(yīng)用抗生素等措施之外,副作用小、依從性好、操作簡單并適合長期應(yīng)用的治療方法更符合臨床需求。
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Research Progress of Urinary Tract Infections in Patients with Spinal Cord Injury(review)
ZHU Jia-qi,MA Yue-wen,CHEN Rui
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine,F(xiàn)irst Hospital of China Medical University,Shenyang,Liaoning 110001,China
Correspondence to MA Yue-wen.E-mail:yuewen_m@sina.com
Abstract:Urinary tract infections remain the most frequent infection in patients with either traumatic or nontraumatic spinal cord injury.The urinary tract infections are closely related to impaired bladder storage,voiding dysfunction,and use of indwelling catheters after spinal cord injury.Repeated urinary tract infections can cause upper urinary tract deterioration,and related chronic or repeated exposure to the antibiotics used to treat urinary tract infections increases the risk of multidrug-resistant bacteria colonization.Therefore,it is important to determine appropriate urinary tract infections treatment in spinal cord injury patients who are admitted to rehabilitation hospitals.The limitations of the usual measures in prevention of urinary tract infections in this population have led the way to explore more innovative modalities and approaches.We reviewed the researches of urinary tract infections on spinal cord injury.It is presented to provide reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment.
Key words:spinal cord injury;urinary tract infections;diagnosis and treatment;review
[中圖分類號]R651.2
[文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼]A
[文章編號]1006-9771(2016)06-0676-04
DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1006-9771.2016.06.011
作者單位:中國醫(yī)科大學(xué)附屬第一醫(yī)院康復(fù)科,遼寧沈陽市110001。
作者簡介:朱佳琪(1985-),女,漢族,湖南益陽市人,碩士,醫(yī)師、助教,主要研究方向:神經(jīng)康復(fù)、心臟康復(fù)。通訊作者:馬躍文(1964-),女,滿族,遼寧沈陽市人,博士,教授,主要研究方向:神經(jīng)康復(fù)、心臟康復(fù)。E-mail:yuewen_m@sina.com。
收稿日期:(2016-03-28修回日期:2016-04-19)