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生命周期評價在農副產品和食品工業(yè)中的應用

2013-04-29 00:44:03陳華等
湖北農業(yè)科學 2013年7期
關鍵詞:食品工業(yè)農副產品應用

陳華等

摘要:生命周期評價(LCA)已經廣泛應用于農副產品和食品工業(yè)研究中,涉及到原材料獲取、能源消耗、污染物排放等多個方面,分析了其對環(huán)境的影響狀況??偨Y了國內外近幾十年來生命周期評價在農副產品和食品工業(yè)中的應用研究,具體涉及到漁業(yè)、畜牧業(yè)、種植業(yè)、其他食品工業(yè)、包裝和廢棄物處理等6個方面,提出了生命周期評價在農副產品和食品工業(yè)中的應用趨勢。

關鍵詞:生命周期評價(LCA);農副產品;食品工業(yè);應用

中圖分類號:X822.1;N945.11 文獻標識碼:A 文章編號:0439-8114(2013)07-1493-05

1969年美國中西部資源研究所(MRI)對可口可樂包裝類型選擇的研究開啟了生命周期評價(Life cycle assessment,LCA)。1990年國際環(huán)境毒理與化學學會(SETAC)首次召開了LCA國際研討會,隨后出版了綱領性報告《生命周期評價綱要:實用指南》,為LCA方法提供了基本技術框架。農副產品和食品工業(yè)生產涉及的環(huán)節(jié)多、范圍廣,不同產品產生的不良環(huán)境類型和程度差別很大。LCA方法在農副產品和食品工業(yè)應用領域可主要分為漁業(yè)、畜牧業(yè)、種植業(yè)、其他食品工業(yè)、包裝和廢棄物處理等6個方面。綜述了LCA方法在農副產品和食品工業(yè)中的應用研究概況及其發(fā)展趨勢。

1 生命周期評價在農副產品和食品工業(yè)中的應用

1.1 漁業(yè)生命周期評價現(xiàn)狀

李君等[1]對扇貝的兩種利用模式進行了對比評價,顯示模式二(產品為扇貝柱、復合氨基酸、魚蝦餌料和貝殼工藝品)在資源消耗、溫室效應、酸化影響、潛在健康影響方面比模式一(產品為扇貝柱、食用貝邊、魚蝦鮮餌料和飼料添加劑)低,而在固體廢棄物和富營養(yǎng)化方面比模式一高。Vázquez-Rowe等[2]采用LCA方法評價了鱈魚的捕撈、加工、運輸?shù)拳h(huán)節(jié)的環(huán)境影響后發(fā)現(xiàn)加工環(huán)節(jié)環(huán)境影響最大。Vázquez-Rowe等[3]運用LCA方法評價了兩種捕魚方法后,獲知拖網(wǎng)捕魚產生的不良環(huán)境影響程度比鉤叉捕魚高,通過降低拖網(wǎng)捕魚的燃油消耗量能降低不良環(huán)境的影響。地中海貽貝加工和運輸過程涉及到酸化、資源消耗、全球變暖、生態(tài)毒性、人體毒性、富營養(yǎng)化、破壞臭氧層和形成光化學氧化劑等多項不良環(huán)境影響因子[4]。Ziegler等[5]將塞內加爾兩種捕蝦方式對比后發(fā)現(xiàn)兩者主要環(huán)境影響環(huán)節(jié)差別很大,拖網(wǎng)捕蝦為捕撈環(huán)節(jié),垂釣捕蝦則為加工和貯藏環(huán)節(jié)。

1.2 畜牧業(yè)生命周期評價現(xiàn)狀

生產牛奶會排放溫室氣體和引起富營養(yǎng)化,從而造成環(huán)境惡化。運用LCA方法評價歐洲牛奶后,發(fā)現(xiàn)通過降低牧場營養(yǎng)過剩程度、減少進口濃縮飼料和牧草飼養(yǎng)量、增加本地牧草供給比例等措施,可以降低不良環(huán)境影響程度[6,7]。Thomassen等[8]采用LCA方法對比了荷蘭傳統(tǒng)牛奶與有機牛奶的區(qū)別,結果表明生產等量牛奶,其中有機牛奶產生的不良環(huán)境影響更小。秦鳳賢[9]利用LCA方法對中國產牛奶分析后指出,其潛在環(huán)境影響因子依次為富營養(yǎng)化、固體廢棄物和全球變暖與酸化。乳制品加工業(yè)主要環(huán)境影響因子為耗水量、有機污水排放量和能源消耗[10]。

Karen等[11]運用LCA方法研究了加拿大西部牛肉造成的溫室氣體排放量,飼養(yǎng)環(huán)節(jié)的溫室氣體排放量占總排放量80%,另外20%來自飼料環(huán)節(jié)。Peters等[12]對澳大利亞3種牛肉生產系統(tǒng)引起的溫室氣體排放量和能源消耗量評估后發(fā)現(xiàn),兩者數(shù)值均低于國際平均標準,提高生產和運輸效率也可以降低能源消耗量。Nathan等[13]通過對比美國愛荷華州的3種牛肉生產方式(①采用愛荷華州的飼料飼養(yǎng)肉牛;②采用愛荷華州以外的其他州的飼料圈養(yǎng)肉牛;③在愛荷華州肉牛培育中心的牧場放養(yǎng)肉牛)的溫室氣體排放量,結果表明在產生等量牛肉條件下,第三種牛肉生產方式溫室排放量最少,提高飼料利用效率能顯著降低溫室氣體排放量。肉牛育肥環(huán)節(jié)中飼養(yǎng)時間、飼料類型、畜舍建設和糞便儲存等均會產生不良環(huán)境影響,其中飼養(yǎng)階段是最主要的環(huán)境影響環(huán)節(jié),其時間越短,環(huán)境影響程度越低[14,15]。有機方式飼養(yǎng)肉牛雖然能減少藥物使用量,但需要更大面積的牧場才能滿足飼養(yǎng)要求[16]。英國肉雞有室內圈養(yǎng)、室外散養(yǎng)、有機喂養(yǎng)等3種喂養(yǎng)方式,Leinonen等[17]評價后指出與室內圈養(yǎng)相比,室外散養(yǎng)和有機喂養(yǎng)的能源消耗量較少。在拓寬調查范圍后,發(fā)現(xiàn)農業(yè)階段是豬肉生產中最主要的環(huán)境影響環(huán)節(jié)[18]。采用有機方式比常規(guī)方式生產豬肉排放的氨和磷酸鹽更少,采用密集種植和多添加氮肥的方式種植草料能減少豬肉生產中產生的環(huán)境影響[19,20]。以蛋白質為功能單位,最高效環(huán)保肉制品為雞肉,其次為豬肉,最后為牛肉。然而,當以能量為功能單位時,最高效環(huán)保肉制品為豬肉,其次為雞肉,最后為牛肉。在兩種功能單位下,牛肉效率都是最低的,可能與其飼料轉化率低有關[21]。

1.3 農產品生命周期評價現(xiàn)狀

農業(yè)溫室氣體排放量占全球排放總量25%~30%。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)通過減少農業(yè)生產面積和提高糧食單位面積產量,歐盟農業(yè)年溫室氣體排放量可減少3 200萬t[22]。Thomas等[23]采用LCA方法評價了農業(yè)和環(huán)境負擔之間的關聯(lián)度。水稻是世界上最重要的農產品之一,按照生命周期研究,水稻可分為收獲前和收獲后兩個階段。Phong等[24]通過調查湄公河三角洲3種種植類型(O-LF、R-HF、R-MF)在土地利用率、能源消耗、廢物產出等方面的區(qū)別,結果顯示,當R-HF效率較低時,不良環(huán)境影響最大。過量或低效使用肥料和CH4排放是水稻生產過程中的主要環(huán)境影響因子。Breiling等[25]評估了日本水稻生產溫室氣體(GHG)排放后,指出其數(shù)值與種植規(guī)模、品種和種植地點密切相關。Roy等[26]運用LCA方法評價了小規(guī)模生產蒸谷米的環(huán)境負荷類型,發(fā)現(xiàn)其會隨著生產進程而發(fā)生變化,且比其他品種變化更大。Sakaorat等[27]分析了泰國水稻種植及其加工的環(huán)境影響,顯示獲得1 kg大米會產生2 927 g CO2(全球變暖)、3.187 g SO2(酸化)、12.896 g NO■■(富營養(yǎng)化),95% CO2產生于種植環(huán)節(jié),3% CO2產生于播種環(huán)節(jié),其余2% CO2產生于碾磨工藝。中國太湖水稻種植會引起酸化、富營養(yǎng)化、水源枯竭、全球變暖和能源枯竭,提高氮肥利用效率能降低資源消耗和廢氣排放量[28]。

栽培方法(溫室或常溫、有機或常規(guī)、水培或土培)、品種、地點、包裝和運輸均會影響番茄生命周期評價結果[29-34]。據(jù)報道,溫室氣體排放量與番茄品種和溫室結構有關[31]。溫室內栽培番茄產生的溫室氣體高于常規(guī)栽培[35],塑料薄膜大棚比溫室栽培消耗資源少[36]。種植方式、病蟲害防治方法和廢棄物管理等對番茄環(huán)境效益都有影響[37],化學防治害蟲比綜合防治產生的溫室氣體更多[38]。加工和包裝是番茄醬生產中的環(huán)境熱點,可通過改變番茄醬類型或降低番茄醬濃縮程度來降低酸化程度[39]。

Point等[40]評價了加拿大新斯科舍省750 mL瓶裝葡萄酒的環(huán)境影響,結果顯示其種植、運輸和消費是最大環(huán)境影響環(huán)節(jié),通過提高肥料利用效率、種植高產有機品種、采用輕質玻璃瓶能降低環(huán)境影響。Humbert等[41]比較了滴濾咖啡、特濃咖啡膠囊、噴霧干燥速溶咖啡環(huán)境負擔,顯示50%的環(huán)境問題是由種植、處理、加工、包裝、銷售和廣告等環(huán)節(jié)產生的,另外50%的環(huán)境問題是由制造、購置和使用生產工具、廢物處置等產生的。

與常規(guī)品種相比,轉基因甜菜品種因為使用除草劑量少,從而減少了對環(huán)境和人類健康的危害[42]。以單位面積(hm2)和單位產量(t)為功能單位,比較德國阿爾高地區(qū)3種耕作方式(密集型:N 80.1、P5.3 kg/hm2;粗放型:N31.4、P4.5 kg/hm2;有機型:N31.1、P2.3 kg/hm2)的環(huán)境影響區(qū)別后,發(fā)現(xiàn)粗放型和有機型比集約型化肥使用量更少,能源消耗量也更低[43]。

1.4 其他食品工業(yè)產品生命周期評價現(xiàn)狀

面包是歐美國家的主要食品之一。多個國家和地區(qū)研究人員運用LCA方法評價面包加工的環(huán)境影響[44],評價范圍包括小麥種植方式(常規(guī)和有機)、小麥磨粉工藝和面包生產流程(包裝工藝和清潔劑類型),結果表明采用有機方式種植小麥、工業(yè)化磨粉和大型面包廠聯(lián)合生產面包為環(huán)境負擔最小的生產方式。烘烤和運輸階段是面包生產中環(huán)境影響的最大環(huán)節(jié),烘烤階段環(huán)境因子為光氧化和能源消耗。

啤酒釀造也是LCA方法評價的重要研究對象之一。啤酒系統(tǒng)邊界不同可能導致最終結果差別很大。若啤酒邊界只考慮啤酒生產、運輸、啤酒容器、廢物處理,環(huán)境影響只考慮溫室氣體排放量[45-47],啤酒生產過程的最大環(huán)境影響環(huán)節(jié)就為麥汁生產,其次為過濾和包裝,最次為發(fā)酵和儲存[45]。擴大系統(tǒng)邊界后,Koroneos等[46]確定啤酒瓶生產為最大環(huán)境影響環(huán)節(jié),其次為啤酒包裝和啤酒生產階段。Hospido等[47]發(fā)現(xiàn)啤酒生產、包裝和大麥收獲與運輸是最大能源消耗環(huán)節(jié)。任輝等[48]發(fā)現(xiàn)啤酒主要環(huán)境影響因子影響潛值依次為:富營養(yǎng)化(0.061)、工業(yè)煙塵和粉塵(0.015)、固體廢棄物(0.003),建議通過廢水處理設施、改進物料粉碎方式和回收利用廢硅藻土降低環(huán)境影響。

Roes等[49]評價了速食食品的環(huán)境影響,發(fā)現(xiàn)最大環(huán)境負荷環(huán)節(jié)為獲取食品原料和固體廢物處理環(huán)節(jié)。Zufia等[50]調查了番茄金槍魚環(huán)境影響,并提出改進方法以減少潛在環(huán)境負擔。

1.5 包裝生命周期評價現(xiàn)狀

包裝能使食品與外界環(huán)境如氧氣、水分、光照和微生物等隔離,并為食品運輸和儲存提供緩沖和保護作用。食品包裝是造成食品環(huán)境負擔的主要根源之一。提高食品包裝回收利用率,降低主包裝重量能降低環(huán)境負擔。Hospido等[47]研究表明玻璃瓶生產和運輸造成的環(huán)境影響占全球包裝系統(tǒng)總量的1/3,回收再利用玻璃瓶能顯著降低環(huán)境負擔[51]。采用多層塑料袋代替金屬罐包裝小袋咖啡,雖然不利于包裝材料的回收,但對環(huán)境影響更小[52]。對比雞蛋兩種不同包裝后發(fā)現(xiàn),聚苯乙烯包裝產生煙霧、粉塵和環(huán)境酸化等不良環(huán)境影響,而再生包裝紙的不良環(huán)境影響為重金屬污染和產生致癌物質[53]。Ross等[54]研究表明制定和實施塑料包裝回收和再利用政策可以產生顯著的環(huán)境效益。Mourad等[55]探討提高牛奶無菌包裝回收再利用可行性后發(fā)現(xiàn),當回收率增加70%時,其不良環(huán)境影響可降低48%。Hyde等[56]認為食品和飲料行業(yè)的包裝原材料使用量可以減少12%。Humbert等[57]對比了玻璃瓶和塑料瓶包裝嬰兒食品在環(huán)境影響方面的區(qū)別,發(fā)現(xiàn)塑料瓶環(huán)境影響更小。Sonesson等[58]報道大量使用包裝材料給瑞典牛奶供應鏈造成巨大環(huán)境壓力。

1.6 食品廢棄物生命周期評價研究

食品工業(yè)通常產生淤泥、有機污水和固體廢料。提高廢棄物利用率可以減少原材料使用量和水資源消耗量[59]。Ramjeawon[60]認為把甘蔗糖廠廢水中的重污染水與冷凝水區(qū)分開能降低廢水處理規(guī)模和費用。Hirai等[61]運用LCA方法評估了4種食品廢物處理方案(①焚燒;②生產生物燃料后焚燒;③生產生物燃料后堆肥;④直接堆肥)造成的環(huán)境影響區(qū)別,表明方案3潛在環(huán)境影響最小。Lundie等[62]研究表明在有氧操作處理食品廢物情況下,家庭堆肥對環(huán)境影響最小。焚燒已經生物降解的固體廢物比直接焚燒食品工業(yè)廢棄物產生的不良環(huán)境影響更小[63],從源頭減少廢物或污染源對環(huán)境影響更小[64]。食品廢物處理方法與環(huán)境負擔密切相關,采用食品廢物綜合管理系統(tǒng)能更好地降低環(huán)境影響。

2 結論

LCA方法能有效評價農副產品和食品工業(yè)的環(huán)境影響狀況,研究表明通過變換生產、加工、包裝、銷售和消費模式可以減少農副產品和食品工業(yè)的環(huán)境負荷。預測或衡量農副產品和食品工業(yè)的環(huán)境負荷,需要深入地了解研究系統(tǒng)范圍和應用程序。LCA方法引入到農副產品和食品工業(yè)評價中,將為具有環(huán)保意識的決策者、生產者、消費者選擇環(huán)境友好型農副產品和食品提供可靠的信息。

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