Fu Xihong

Abstract: Wang Yangming’s theory of effort (gongfu) has at least two distinctive features.First, since effort is devoted to the original substance, the original substance and effort are united, and what Wang Yangming advocated is thus a monistic type of effort devoted to the original substance.Second, since the original substance has different manifestations in different stages, effort can be divided into two types based on whether principle is followed deliberately or spontaneously.The monistic and two-level perspective may illuminate Wang’s thoughts on activity and tranquility.Activity has three levels of meaning: engaging in something, obeying desires, and deliberateness; tranquility also has three levels of meaning: engaging in nothing, following principle, and spontaneity.At the first level,tranquility is a special case of activity, and engaging in nothing is a special case of engaging in something.Accordingly, the heart-mind engaging in something and that engaging in nothing are one and the same, and the unity of activity and tranquility refers to following principle in a general sense, or in particular to following principle spontaneously.While following principle already leads to proper actions, following principle spontaneously is proper and natural, as a perfect manifestation of human innate knowledge and a feature of the Way of Heaven.

Keywords: Wang Yangming, innate knowledge, effort, original substance, monistic and two-level conception, unity of activity and tranquility

The issue of activity and tranquility plays an important role in the history of Chinese philosophy.Chinese philosophers since Confucius and Laozi have made important inquiries into the issue, and among them is Wang Yangming 王陽(yáng)明 (Wang Shouren 王守仁, 1472—1529).Wang’s ideas, especially the unity of activity and tranquility, have attracted manyscholars’ attention.For example, Iso Kern, a Swiss philosopher specializing in Chinese philosophy, in what he claimed to be the “work of his life,” the monumentalDas Wichtigste im Leben: Wang Yangming (1472-1529) und seine Nachfolger über die ?Verwirklichung des ursprünglichen Wissens“[The Most Important Thing in Life: Wang Yangming (1472—1529)and His Successors on the “Realization of Innate Knowledge”] (2010),discussed the issue in a section titled “The ‘Original Substance of Innate Knowledge’ Is the Unity of Activity and Tranquility or Tranquility in Activity,” noting that, according to Wang Yangming, “‘human nature’ and the unity of activity and tranquility are the two essential characteristics of the‘original knowledge’.”1Iso Kern, Das Wichtigste im Leben: Wang Yangming (1472-1529) und seine Nachfolger über die ?Verwirklichung des ursprünglichen Wissens“ (2010).Translated by Ni Liangkang 倪梁康 as [人生第一等事——王陽(yáng)明及其后學(xué)論“致良知”] (Beijing: Commercial Press, 2014), 310.What is meant by “human nature” is nothing other than sincerity and commiseration, and what is meant by the “original knowledge” is nothing other than innate knowledge.

A thorough understanding of Wang Yangming’s proposition of the unity of activity and tranquility requires an accurate understanding of their meanings.Research shows the various meanings of the two concepts at different levels in Wang Yangming’s philosophy.The meaning at the fi rst level is that people need to either engage in something or engage in nothing.The meanings at the second and third levels are immediately relevant to the original substance (benti本體).That is, activity means departing from the original substance (obeying selfish human desires), or following the original substance in a coerced or deliberate manner, while tranquility means following the original substance (following principle), or more specifically following the original substance spontaneously.What Wang Yangming advocates is a two-level effort (gongfu工夫) of moving from obeying selfish human desires to following principle, and from following principle deliberately to following it spontaneously.Therefore, the unity of activity and tranquility at the second and third levels involves responding to events in an ordered way, and following principle spontaneously, free from any strain or stress.Also, in his discussion on the meaning of the unity of activity and tranquility at the fi rst level, Wang intends to emphasize that the heart-mind in action and the heart-mind in tranquility are one and the same, that the heart-mind has neither internal nor external aspects, and that effort should always be devoted to the original substance.

As can be seen from the above, Wang Yangming’s observation on activity and tranquility is in fact based on the monistic and two-level conception of effort devoted to the original substance.2For more on this issue, see Fu Xihong 傅錫洪, “On the Notion of ‘Sincerity and Commiseration’ in the School of Wang Yangming: The Origin of the Notion, Its Gongfu Connotation, and Contemporary Signifi cance” [論陽(yáng)明學(xué)中的“真誠(chéng)惻怛”：思想淵源、工夫內(nèi)涵及當(dāng)代意義], Journal of Hangzhou Normal University (Social Sciences Edition) [杭州師范大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)（社會(huì)科學(xué)版）], no.5 (2020): 19—28.It is from the monistic and two-level perspective that a more accurate and thorough understanding of activity and tranquility, especially the unity of the two, can be gained.This paper seeks to examine and organize Wang Yangming’s ideas on activity and tranquility from this perspective, and explores particularly the meaning of the unity of activity and tranquility at three different levels.

The Meaning of the ‘Unity of Activity and Tranquility’at the First Level [Refer to page 91 for Chinese.Similarly hereinafter]

According to Wang Yangming, activity and tranquility refer to the different states a person is in, and the difference between them is whether there is an event to respond to.Activityand tranquility, at the first level, pertain to the time when the heart-mind comes into contact with things: activity means the heart-mind engages in something while tranquility means the heart-mind engages in nothing.3“It is the Principle of Nature.It is the state in which activity and tranquility are united.” “Activity and tranquility may refer to the heart-mind’s engaging in something or nothing.” See Wang Shouren 王守仁, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part I” [傳習(xí)錄上], vol.1 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming [王陽(yáng)明全集], eds.Wu Guang 吳光 et al.(Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2011), 19, 72.The English translations are from Wing-tsit Chan,trans., Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-Ming (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 36, 136.For the sake of consistency, in all the quotes from Chan’s book, xin 心 which Chan renders as “mind” is translated as “heart-mind” by the translator of this paper.In this sense, the unity of activity and tranquility emphasizes that the heart-mind is not internal when engaging in nothing, and the heartmind is not external when engaging in something; instead, the heart-mind responds to events directly and in accord with principle.

It should be noted that what activity and tranquility mean at the first level does not matter; what matters is the introduction ofxinti心體 (the substance of the heart-mind, also variously called innate knowledge or the original substance) into Wang Yangming’s theory.Since the substance of the heart-mind is in operation all the time, whether the heart-mind engages in something or engages in nothing does not make any difference.

Lu Cheng 陸澄 (fl.1517) asked about the chapter, saying, “Hold it fast and you preserve it.Let it go and you lose it.” Wang Yangming said, “Although when the passage adds that ‘it goes out and comes in at no defi nite time and without anyone’s knowing its direction,’ it refers to the heart-mind of the ordinary person, the student must realize that the original substance of the heart-mind is basically like this.The effort of holding fast and preserving the heart-mind is then free from any defects.One should not readily say that when the heart-mind goes out it is lost and when it comes in it is preserved.If we talk about the original substance, in fact it neither goes out nor comes in.If we talk about going out and coming in, then the heart-mind’s thoughts, deliberations, and operations are the going out.However, the master is always obviously present.Where is there any going out? And if there is no going out, where is there any coming in? When Master Cheng Hao 程顥 (1032—1085) talked about ‘the hollow place [that fi lls] the whole body,’ he referred to nothing other than the Principle of Nature.Although one may be engaged in social intercourse all day long, if he is able not to depart from the Principle of Nature, it is tantamount to his remaining inside this body.Only when he departs from the Principle of Nature can he be said to have let the heart-mind go or lost it.” He again said, “To go out or come in is no more than activity and tranquility.Neither activity nor tranquility has any beginning.Do they have any direction?”4Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part I,” 20.Chan, trans., 40.

According to Wang Yangming, the phrase that “it goes out and comes in at no defi nite time and without anyone’s knowing its direction” is not only a criticism of ordinary people’s confused ideas, but also a description of the way in which the substance of the heart-mind operates.In every present moment in the temporal flow, there emerges the thought of liking good and disliking evil, and every present moment is transient; therefore,it is impossible to predict or control the emergence of the next thought.Nevertheless, this is what the substance of the heart-mind is truly like.So when one’s effort does accord with the substance of the heart-mind, one gives full play to the substance of the heart-mind,and there will be no defect.Here lies a very important message: the substance of the heartmind is what effort relies on.The substance of the heart-mind is always in operation, in every moment making judgments about good and evil, and taking the act of liking good and disliking evil; therefore, the substance of the heart-mind provides both the standard of good and evil and the drive to action, the two being essential components of one’s effort.Since the substance of the heart-mind is always in operation, it does not matter whether one engages in something or not, and the distinction between activity and tranquility becomes insignifi cant.Emphasizing the distinction would obscure the role the substance ofthe heart-mind plays unceasingly in the fl ow of time, leading to the mistaken idea that the substance of the heart-mind seems to exist only when one engages in nothing, and that once something happens and one responds to it, the substance of the heart-mind would be lost.

Besides Lu Cheng, other disciples of Wang Yangming also got puzzled over the issue of activity and tranquility.

I asked, “When midnight comes and a Confucian wipes out all thoughts and deliberations from his heart-mind, there will be only emptiness and tranquility, which is no different from the tranquility of the Buddhists.If at this moment he entertains neither thoughts and deliberations nor emptiness and tranquility, what is the difference between the Confucian and the Buddhist?” The Teacher said, “Activity and tranquility are one.If it is in accord with the Principle of Nature, the heart-mind that is empty and tranquil at midnight will be the same heart-mind that responds to events and deals with affairs now.If it is in accord with the Principle of Nature, the heart-mind that responds to events and deals with affairs now is the same heart-mind that is empty and tranquil at midnight.Therefore activity and tranquility are one and cannot be separated.If we know that activity and tranquility form a unity, the fact that the Buddhist’s infi nitesimal mistake at the beginning leads to an infi nite error in the end cannot be concealed.”5Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part III” [傳習(xí)錄下], in vol.3 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming,111.Chan, trans., 203.

In the passage quoted above, Wang Yangming calls attention to the ideas that “activity and tranquility are one,” and “activity and tranquility form a unity.” The point to make is that whether or not one engages in something, it is the same heart-mind that is operating.The substance of the heart-mind is the string running through activity and tranquility.The problem with Buddhism is that it holds that the substance of the heart-mind exists only before the emergence of thought.This means that only in tranquility can the heartmind be preserved, while in activity the heart-mind cannot be preserved.Consequently, the operation of the substance of the heart-mind in activity is overlooked, and so is its leading role in the effort of activity.Regardless of the truthfulness of the Buddhist view, as far as Wang Yangming is concerned, his emphasis on the unity of activity and tranquility is to make people realize that the substance of the heart-mind is in ceaseless operation.Whether or not there is something to respond to, one should always follow the substance of the heart-mind in action, and avoid detaching effort from the substance of the heart-mind.

Two Problems of Deviating from the First-Level Meaning [93]

There are two major problems with detaching effort from the substance of the heartmind.First, while engaging in nothing, one simply “makes the vital force calm.” However,the heart-mind “seems to be collected and concentrated, but is in fact scattered and lost.”Second, when something happens, “the heart-mind and the affairs are not in unity.”

For the fi rst problem, the disciple asking the question about a Confucian wiping out all thoughts and deliberations at midnight does not realize the operation of the substance of the heart-mind in tranquility; as a consequence, he may simply calm the vital force and fall short of hitting the mark.Wang Yangming thinks that, although ordinary people“preserve the heart-mind through peace and tranquility,” seemingly accomplishing the task of tranquility, they in fact “make their vital force calm,” and achieve the “peace and tranquility of their vital force,” showing a total disregard for following the substance of the heart-mind.Since the heart-mind is temporarily cut off from the complex affairs of life,people undoubtedly feel relaxed, which will lead to “the fault of gradually becoming fondof quietness and tired of activity.”6Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part I,” 15.Chan, trans., 30.However, the repressed thoughts do not vanish but remain in a latent state, and given the opportunity, they will immediately arise from the heart-mind.7Zhu Xi has a similar view.For example, “Someone asked: ‘What should one do when he cannot make his heart-mind calm?’ The Master answered: ‘One should focus on whether or not the heart-mind is true instead of whether or not the heart-mind is calm.’” See Li Jingde 黎靖德, ed., Thematic Discourses of Master Zhu [朱子語(yǔ)類], vol.12 (Beijing:Zhonghua Book Company, 1986), 205.To really do away with thoughts and deliberations, people need to rely on the substance of the heart-mind, which casts light on the thoughts and deliberations, reveals them as irrational and illusory, and makes them disappear naturally.This is the right path.

For the second problem, some scholars, having heard Wang Yangming’s talk of the substance of the heart-mind, are skeptical that the heart-mind can directly respond to events and properly deal with affairs.As a consequence, in responding to events, they are unable to follow the substance of the heart-mind, and they feel it is difficult to align the heart-mind with events.In this regard, the situation of one’s engaging in something can be divided into two types.

First, people may follow Zhu Xi’s 朱熹 (1130—1200) line of thought, regarding the standard as within things and events, yet unaware that the heart-mind itself contains the standard by which to respond to events.Perplexity thus ensues in the heart-mind.Wang Yangming once criticized his disciple Wang Chunfu 王純甫 (1478—1547) for knowing that the task was centered on the heart-mind but not realizing that the heart-mind had the standard of goodness.

In everyday life, Wang Chunfu only knows the truth of preserving the heart-mind, but does not practice checking and restraining selfi sh desires and evil thoughts, so he does not achieve the unity of activity and tranquility.When something happens, he feels confused and disturbed....The problem with Wang Chunfu is that he still does not understand the fundamental teachings of the sage, and is preoccupied with the linguistic exegesis of the later ages, thinking that each thing or event has within it the highest good, that the highest good can be gleaned from things and events, and that fi nally there will dawn the moment of enlightenment about goodness.8Wang Shouren, “A Letter to Wang Chunfu” [與王純甫], in vol.4 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 174—175.

That each thing or event has within it the highest good is the view of the school of Zhu Xi.To seek the highest good in things and events is opposed to the idea that the standard of goodness is inherent in the heart-mind.As a matter of fact, principle is not outside of the heart-mind, nor is principle to be apprehended by the heart-mind.Rather, principle is inherent in the heart-mind, and is manifested in things.

Second, people think the heart-mind is internal, and things and events are external,oblivious that the heart-mind can directly respond to things and events.Wang Yangming taught people to make their effort devoted to the original heart-mind.His disciples often construed Wang’s teaching as preserving the original heart-mind while at the same time dealing with affairs.In their view, it was not easy to address the complex affairs of actual life and to follow the guide of innate knowledge at once.In practice, they often felt tired out by giving consideration to both the heart-mind and the affair.For example, Chen Jiuchuan 陳九川(1494—1562), one of Wang’s disciples, said,

In devoting myself to sitting in meditation, I feel to some extent that my heart-mind is collected and concentrated.As some affair occurs, however, the concentration is interrupted.Then I make up my mind to examine [principles] in that affair.When that is over, I return to the former task of sitting in meditation.Still I feel that the internal and external aspects of the heart-mind are not blended into one.9Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part III,” 104.Chan, trans., 191.

As can be seen from Chen’s confession, at the beginning of the task, one tends to find it difficult to take account of both the heart-mind and the affair.However, after a long period of practice, Chen made improvements, and achieved the harmony of the heart-mind and the affair as well as the blend between the internal and the external aspects.

As mentioned above, Wang Yangming believes the heart-mind can directly respond to events, and the heart-mind and the event are unquestionably one.Because people assume that the heart-mind is internal when nothing happens, that the heart-mind is external when something happens, and that the external aspects of the heart-mind become manifest due to its internal aspects, the heart-mind and the event are separate and cannot be harmonized.This explains why Wang Yangming puts special emphasis on the idea that the heart-mind makes no distinction between the internal and the external.To Chen Jiuchuan’s question,Wang’s answer is:

The heart-mind has neither internal nor external aspects.For instance, you are now having a discussion with me.Is there a heart-mind within you to take care of this discussion? When you are talking and your heart-mind concentrates on being serious,it is the same heart-mind as when you are engaged in sitting in meditation.The task is a continuous and unifi ed one.What is the need of making up the mind on top of it? One must be trained and polished in the actual affairs of life.Only when the effort is made that way will it be benefi cial.10Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part III,” 104.Chan, trans., 191—192.

It is precisely due to the distinction of the internal and the external that problems arise.Given that “to go out or come in is no more than activity and tranquility,” Wang’s notion that “the heart-mind has neither internal nor external aspects” also means that “the heartmind has neither activity nor tranquility.” Accordingly, the “continuous and unifi ed” task emphasized by Wang is also one which blends the internal and the external, and unites activity with tranquility.In addition, Wang thinks there is no “need of making up the mind on top of it,” for it is important to rely on the substance of the heart-mind when one comes into contact with things, and not to seek the original heart-mind outside of responding to events.Finally, “being trained and polished in the actual affairs of life” does not mean responding to events in a way that loses touch with the heart-mind; rather, it means training and polishing the heart-mind during the process of responding to events.

Since the substance of the heart-mind never ceases to operate, it can be said that one never ceases to engage in something and is always in action, or to quote from Wang Yangming, “one is always doing something whether one is active or tranquil.”11Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part I,” 29.Chan, trans., 55.That is to say, the tranquility of engaging in nothing is but a special form of activity.Activity and tranquility are not opposed to each other; in fact, the former incorporates the latter.This is what deserves special attention in the meaning of the unity of activity and tranquility at the fi rst level.

Whether or not something happens, the substance of the heart-mind is always in action, so what is essential is the devotion of one’s effort to the substance of the heartmind.Wang Yangming says, “For scholars, what is of vital importance is to concentrate on extending innate knowledge, regardless of whether or not something happens.”12Wang Yangming 王陽(yáng)明, “The Master’s Teachings in the Kuaiji Mountain” [稽山承語(yǔ)], in vol.40 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming (New Edition) [王陽(yáng)明全集（新編本）], eds.Wu Guang 吳光 et al.(Hangzhou:Zhejiang Ancient Books Publishing House, 2010), 1608.The effort devoted to innate knowledge is monistic.Since innate knowledge is the original substance,the effort made to extend innate knowledge is the effort devoted to the original substance.In short, only by breaking the dichotomy of activity and tranquility, and realizing the role ofthe original substance in uniting activity with tranquility, can scholars achieve the unity of the original substance and their effort, and truly put into effect the original substance.

The Meaning of the ‘Unity of Activity and Tranquility’at the Second Level [95]

The second meaning of the “unity of activity and tranquility” concerns whether to obey desires or to follow principle.In this sense, the “unity of activity and tranquility” means“tranquility incorporated in activity.” In other words, while responding to events, one follows principle, takes perfectly proper actions, and feels at peace; therefore, although one is active, one’s heart-mind is tranquil as well.

As mentioned above, the substance of the heart-mind, in the present moment, makes judgments about good and evil, and develops the thought of liking good and disliking evil, thus directly guiding and encouraging people to take the best course of action.This process involves two dimensions: the standard of good and evil, and the drive to like good and dislike evil.It is relatively easy for one to follow principle by simply liking good and disliking evil.Even if the substance of the heart-mind has not yet been clearly manifested,one can still manage to follow principle deliberately and persistently.However, it is more difficult to like good and dislike evil without deliberation or coercion, but completely out of one’s own accord and driven purely by the manifested substance of the heart-mind.The latter way of following principle is following principle naturally and spontaneously.Only when the substance of the heart-mind is clear and bright can one be free from the disturbance of selfi sh desires and follow principle spontaneously.Advancing from following principle deliberately to following principle spontaneously is central to Wang Yangming’s two-level task.Under the framework of the two-level task, tranquility may denote following principle, and more specifi cally spontaneity (in following principle), while activity denotes respectively obeying desires and deliberateness.

Wang Yangming says, “Following principle is called tranquility, and obeying desires is called activity.Desires do not necessarily mean desires for music, sex, wealth, or profi t.Having a heart-mind of selfishness is desire.”13Wang Shouren, “A Reply to Lun Yanshi” [答倫彥式], in vol.5 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 204.Here lies a redefinition of activity and tranquility.They no longer hinge on whether or not something happens but whether one follows principle or obeys desires.Wang’s view that “having a heart-mind of selfishness is desire” might have come from Cheng Hao’s view that “as long as thought is directed[at something], there is desire.”14Cheng Hao 程顥 and Cheng Yi 程頤, Remnant Books of the Cheng Brothers of Henan [河南程氏遺書], vol.15, in Works of the Two Cheng Brothers [二程集], ed.Wang Xiaoyu 王孝魚 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1981), 145.However, subtle differences also exist between the two views.Cheng Hao thinks that as long as one’s idea is directed at something in deliberation,selfish desires will emerge from the heart-mind.However, Wang Yangming does not see it that way.To Wang, having the intention of something does not necessarily amount to selfi sh desires; in fact, it plays a positive role in aiding one in following principle when the heart-mind has not yet been clearly manifested.For the same reason, being mindful and deliberate in one’s effort at this stage is regarded as tranquil instead of active.When the substance of the heart-mind is clear and bright, and one’s liking good and disliking evil arise spontaneously from the substance of the heart-mind, one should refrain from deliberateness,for it would then have negative effects, giving rise to selfi sh desires and making the heartmind active.In this latter stage, the smooth operation of the heart-mind is hampered by theintervention of one’s deliberateness.In short, being mindful in the task can be either tranquil or active, depending on the stage of the task of learning.Whatever the meaning of selfi sh desires, the standard by which to distinguish between activity and tranquility is whether one follows principle or obeys desires, not whether one is deliberate or not.The second meaning of activity and tranquility can be summarized as follows: as long as one follows principle,one’s heart-mind is tranquil, even though one follows principle deliberately; as long as one obeys desires, one’s heart-mind is active, even though one obeys desires with spontaneity.

Why is it that as one follows principle, one’s heart-mind is tranquil? The answer can be found in Wang Yangming’s explanation of calmness.Wang says, “Calmness is the original substance of the heart-mind.It is the Principle of Nature.”15Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part I,” 19.Chan, trans., 36.One’s heart-mind is calm when one is in accord with the Principle of Nature, or when one follows principle.Also, Wang associates following principle with calmness and quietude.In addition, he notes that being calm or being at peace means being tranquil (being unperturbed): “Joy means that in spite of crying, one’s heart-mind is at peace.The original substance of the heart-mind has not been perturbed.”16Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part III,” 127.Chan, trans., 230.

The reason why obeying desires is regarded as activity is that being active means being deviant.Wang Yangming says, “Principle involves no activity.When the heart-mind is active (stirred, perturbed), this means that it has selfish desires.”17Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part II” [傳習(xí)錄中], vol.2 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming,72.Chan, trans., 136—137.For one, following principle is tranquility, while deviating from principle is activity.Since deviating from principle means obeying desires, it follows that as one obeys desires, one is already active.

Wang Yangming says,

The heart-mind is not perturbed in its original substance.It is perturbed only because one’s action is not in accord with righteousness.Mencius did not discuss whether the heart-mind is perturbed or not.He talked only about the accumulation of righteous deeds.If every action is right, there will naturally be nothing to perturb the heart-mind.18Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part III,” 121.Chan, trans., 221.

As can be seen, whether or not the heart-mind is perturbed depends on whether or not one’s action is in accord with righteousness.As the original substance of the heart-mind becomes manifest and operates of its own accord, unaffected by selfi sh desires, one’s action is in accord with righteousness, and one’s heart-mind is not perturbed.

The meaning of the unity of activity and tranquility at the second level is not complex.Although one is in action, one’s heart-mind is tranquil: since one responds to events properly, or follows principle, one does not feel perturbed in the process of responding to events.Wang Yangming says, “If it follows principle, it is not active (stirred) in spite of countless changes in its dealing with things.On the other hand, if it obeys selfi sh desires,then even if it is like dry wood and reduced to one single thought, it is not tranquil.Is there any doubt that there is activity in tranquility and tranquility in activity?”19Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part II,” 72.Chan, trans., 137.When things happen, there are “countless changes in its dealing with things.” This is activity at the fi rst level.Following principle means tranquility at the second level.The unity of the activity at the fi rst level and tranquility at the second level is “tranquility in activity.” When the heartmind engages in nothing, “l(fā)ike dry wood and reduced to one single thought,” this state is tranquility at the fi rst level.Obeying desires is activity at the second level.The unity of the tranquility at the first level and activity at the second level is “activity in tranquility.”“Tranquility in activity” is a praiseworthy achievement while “activity in tranquility” should be negated.One achieves the unity of activity and tranquility at the second level if one follows principle in responding to events.While engaging in nothing, one’s heart-mind can still be active.Therefore, the unity of activity and tranquility applies whether or not something actually happens.20The second meaning of the unity of activity and tranquility is close to Zhu Xi’s view.As Zhu Xi asserts, “There is tranquility in activity.If one follows principle in dealing with the actual affairs of life, one achieves tranquility in activity.” See Li, Thematic Discourses of Master Zhu, vol.12, 218.

The Meaning of the ‘Unity of Activity and Tranquility’at the Third Level [97]

At the third level, tranquility means spontaneity, and activity means deliberateness.The unity of activity and tranquility at this level means following principle spontaneously, a state resulting from nothing but the original substance.It represents the highest state of human innate knowledge as well as a typical feature of the Way of Heaven.

As is mentioned above, Wang Yangming says: “If every action is right, there will naturally be nothing to perturb the heart-mind.” It can be seen from the sentence that as one’s acts of accumulating righteous deeds or following principle have reached a certain point, one enters the state of following principle spontaneously.The spontaneity (in following principle) constitutes the third meaning of tranquility (being unperturbed).In contrast, following principle deliberately is the third meaning of activity.Wang Yangming says, “The state of having neither good nor evil is that of principle in tranquility.Good and evil appear when the vital force is perturbed.If the vital force is not perturbed,there is neither good nor evil, and this is called the highest good.”21Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part I,” 33.Chan, trans., 63—64.That “the vital force is perturbed” means deliberateness, and the state of “principle in tranquility” means spontaneity.As one moves up from following principle deliberately to following principle spontaneously, one gets to the state of having neither good nor evil.Therefore, having neither good nor evil means following principle spontaneously, or specifi cally, liking good and disliking evil spontaneously.In contrast, having either good or evil means following principle deliberately, or specifi cally, liking good and disliking evil deliberately.As can be seen, what distinguishes activity and tranquility at the third level is whether one follows principle deliberately or spontaneously.Having neither good nor evil is called the highest good because one takes perfectly proper actions and does so in the most proper way, that is,spontaneously.Undoubtedly, one’s effort reaches the highest state.

The unity of activity and tranquility (following principle spontaneously) is, to use Wang Yangming’s words, “completely following the Principle of Nature.” Wang says,

Although it is good to apply effort to tranquility, there are still defects.One’s heart-mind never ceases to operate throughout life.Although one is asleep, one’s heart-mind is in operation, like the transforming process of Heaven and Earth, which goes on without ceasing day and night.Heaven and Earth transform and create the myriad things,with each in its proper place; therefore, Heaven and Earth are in themselves tranquil(unperturbed).Although the heart-mind is in ceaseless operation, it completely follows the Principle of Nature, and is likewise in itself tranquil.If one applies effort only to tranquility, one may suffer from the defect of liking tranquility and disliking activity.In fact, activity and tranquility are one.22Wang Shouren, “Supplement to Instructions for Practical Living” [傳習(xí)錄拾遺], in vol.32 of Complete Works of Wang Yangming, 1294.Since one “completely follows principle,” one is entirely devoted to the Principle of Nature,and is devoid of the act of deliberateness.What one does is done spontaneously and in accord with principle.All in all, while one is in this state, one’s thought comes entirely from the substance of the heart-mind.

As mentioned earlier, the original substance contains two dimensions: the standard of good and evil and the drive to action.As far as humanity is concerned, the original substance is innate knowledge; with regard to Heaven and Earth, the original substance is the Way of Heaven or the Great Ultimate.Wang Yangming thinks innate knowledge and the Way of Heaven are one.Wang’s argumentation will not be repeated here.What is worthy of attention is Wang’s discussion of the constancy and eternity of the original substance and the ceaseless wonderful functioning of the original substance from the perspective of the Great Ultimate.Wang says,

The principle of production and reproduction of the Great Ultimate is ceaseless in its wonderful functioning, but its eternal substance does not change.The production and reproduction of the Great Ultimate are the same as those ofyinandyang.Referring to its processes of production and reproduction and pointing to the ceaselessness of their wonderful functioning, we say that there is activity and thatyangis engendered, but do not say that there is fi rst activity and thenyangis engendered.Referring to its processes of production and reproduction and pointing to the unchanging aspect of their eternal substance, we say that there is tranquility and thatyinis engendered, but do not say that there is fi rst tranquility and thenyinis engendered.23Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part II,” 72.Chan, trans., 137—138.

It is due to the constancy and eternity of the standard of the original substance that one is able to follow principle, and it is due to the ceaselessness of the wonderful functioning of the original substance that one is driven to follow principle spontaneously.Following principle spontaneously can be said to be both tranquil and active: it is tranquil in terms of following principle because principle is the eternal substance, and it is active in terms of taking actions spontaneously because behind the spontaneity is the drive of the ceaseless and wonderful functioning of the original substance.

Wang Yangming’s conception of eternal tranquility and ceaseless activity are inspired by Cheng Hao.Cheng says,

“[The state of] being absolutely quiet and [that of] being acted upon and penetrating things” mean the Principle of Nature is complete and inherent in everyone, neither existing for Yao 堯 nor perishing for Jie 桀.With regard to the roles of father, son, ruler, and minister, the constant principle is unchanged, so how can the heart-mind be perturbed?Since the heart-mind is not perturbed, it can be said to be “absolutely quiet”; although the heart-mind is not perturbed, it is capable of being acted upon and penetrating things, and being acted upon does not pertain to external aspects.24Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, Remnant Books of the Cheng Brothers of Henan, part I of vol.2, in Works of the Two Cheng Brothers, 43.

According to Cheng Hao, the states of being absolutely quiet and being acted upon do not correspond to the states of one’s engaging in something and engaging in nothing, nor can they be construed as respectively the other-world substance and its this-world application;in fact, the two states are the two sides of the same coin: principle is eternal, and ceaseless in its wonderful functioning.Since the constant principle is naturally ceaseless in its wonderful functioning, it is said that “being acted upon does not pertain to external aspects.” Zhu Xi thinks “by saying ‘the constant principle is unchanged,’ Master Cheng means that prior to being acted upon, the substance of principle is unperturbed and unchanged.”25Zhu Xi 朱熹, “A Reply to Hu Guangzhong” [答胡廣仲], in vol.42 of Collected Works of Zhu Huian [晦庵先生朱文公文集], book 22 of Complete Works of Master Zhu [朱子全書], eds.Zhu Jieren 朱杰人 et al.(Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House; Hefei: Anhui Education Press, 2002), 1901.However,Zhu’s interpretation seems to depart from Cheng Hao’s original meaning.What is unchanged does not refer to the metaphysical original substance prior to being acted upon,but to the state of the heart-mind being acted upon yet unperturbed.

From the perspective of the constant eternal substance and its ceaseless wonderful functioning, a better understanding can be gained of many of Wang Yangming’s discussions of activity and tranquility.The discussions express, in various ways, the third meaning of the unity of activity and tranquility.Wang says, “Tranquility is the substance,” and “Tranquility is used to speak of the substance,” meaning the constant substance of innate knowledge is eternal; Wang also says, “Activity is the function,” and “Activity is used to speak of the function,” meaning the wonderful functioning of innate knowledge is unceasing.26Wang Shouren, “A Reply to Lun Yanshi,” 203—204.Besides,Wang says, “The substance and function of the heart-mind cannot be equated with its tranquil and active states.”27Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part I,” 36.Chan, trans., 69.In this sentence, activity and tranquility pertain to the time when something happens or not, and Wang does not associate activity and tranquility with the ceaseless wonderful functioning and the constant eternal substance.

To take another example, Wang says,

When the heart-mind engages in something and is thereby acted upon and penetrates things, it can of course be said to be active.But nothing has been added to the state of absolute quietness.When the heart-mind engages in nothing and remains quiet, it can of course be said to be tranquil, but nothing has been subtracted from the state of being acted upon and penetrating.28Wang Shouren, “Instructions for Practical Living, Part II,” 72.Chan, trans., 137.

Wang’s view is the same as Cheng Hao’s, and can be understood from the perspective of the constant eternal substance and the ceaseless wonderful functioning.That “nothing has been added to the state of absolute quietness” is due to the fact that the constant eternal substance is the very source of the ceaseless wonderful functioning, with the function being inherent in the substance.That “nothing has been subtracted from the state of being acted upon and penetrating” is due to the fact that the constant eternal substance is inherently capable of the ceaseless wonderful functioning whether or not the functioning is manifest in concrete affairs.

In short, the unity of activity and tranquility at the third level refers to the state of the original substance becoming manifest, functioning spontaneously, and following principle.This state applies to humanity as well as Heaven and Earth.As far as humanity is concerned,the unity of activity and tranquility at the third level (following principle spontaneously) is a special type of the unity of activity and tranquility at the second level (following principle).The former is included in the latter.

Conclusion [99]

To Wang Yangming, the issue of activity and tranquility as well as the unity of activity and tranquility is important because it is bound up with the problems commonly faced by people engaging in effort at that time, with the similarities and differences between Wang’s thought and other schools of thought (such as Buddhism and Zhu Xi’s theory),and with the gist of Wang’s arguments for a monistic and two-level theory of effort.By proposing the unity of activity and tranquility, Wang stresses that the substance of the heart-mind always functions in one’s effort; therefore, his theory of effort differs from Buddhism, which pursues tranquility to the exclusion of activity and concludes from thisthat activity and tranquility can both be in accord with principle.Wang thinks effort can be made by relying on the substance of the heart-mind.The observation marks his theory as different from Zhu Xi’s, which cuts effort off from the substance of the heart-mind.Although Zhu Xi acknowledges the unity of activity and tranquility at the second level, he does not agree to the unity of activity and tranquility at the third level, which concerns the function of the substance of the heart-mind.It is true that Zhu Xi calls special attention to the unity of substance and function, but a distinction is drawn between the two.Substance is abstract and other-worldly while function is concrete and this-worldly.Regarding the unity of activity and tranquility at the third level, Wang Yangming concurs with Cheng Hao.However, while Wang approaches effort with a two-level perspective, Cheng Hao’s view that “as long as thought is directed [at something], there is desire” precludes an interpretation of effort as having two levels.In short, the different meanings of the unity of activity and tranquility highlight the distinctive features of Wang Yangming’s theory of effort.In addition, it is only from a holistic perspective on Wang Yangming’s theory of effort that one can have a full and accurate grasp of the rich meaning of the unity of activity and tranquility.

The unity of activity and tranquility involves the issues of not only one’s effort but also the Way of Heaven.Taken as the point of departure for understanding the unity of activity and tranquility, the theory of effort seems inadequate to expose the rich connotations of the unity of activity and tranquility.However, if the focus is placed entirely on the Way of Heaven, a holistic view of the matter is lost, and so are the three meanings of the unity of activity and tranquility.The unity of activity and tranquility concerning the Way of Heaven pertains to the third level only, from which one cannot have an immediate grasp of the unity of activity and tranquility at the fi rst and second levels.More important, although the unity of activity and tranquility concerning the Way of Heaven is an objective reality, it is really embodied and appreciated by people through their efforts.In this regard, the standpoint of effort is quite reasonable and should be given priority.

Bibliography of Cited Translations

Chan, Wing-tsit, trans.Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-Ming.New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1963.