[坦桑尼亞]肯尼迪·加斯頓
梁雯雯**譯 肖軍***校
“二戰(zhàn)”后亞非國(guó)家的加入促使國(guó)際法向好的方向發(fā)展,使其獲得合法性和廣泛承認(rèn)。國(guó)際法規(guī)則首次適用于新獨(dú)立國(guó)家群體,它們被視為平等主權(quán)者,有權(quán)談判和影響國(guó)際法規(guī)則,以符合其對(duì)國(guó)際法的需要和期待。
由于處于不同經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展階段的國(guó)家之間觀點(diǎn)和期待存在嚴(yán)重分歧,外國(guó)投資法可能是引起更多爭(zhēng)議的國(guó)際法領(lǐng)域之一。
本文首先介紹自然資源永久主權(quán)規(guī)范的內(nèi)容和歷史,及其與研究BITs 及其保護(hù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)(特別是征收補(bǔ)償)的關(guān)聯(lián)。
然后,本文考察并試圖回答的重大問(wèn)題是:導(dǎo)致發(fā)展中國(guó)家從堅(jiān)決反對(duì)國(guó)際法調(diào)整投資迅速倒退到在BITs 中放棄主權(quán)的原因。本文繼而考察自然資源永久主權(quán)與BITs 正在面臨的抵制這二者之間的關(guān)聯(lián),及其在新條約談判以及解釋和適用已有條約以提升其合法性中的可能作用。
最后,從例外條款角度,本文考察如何限制投資法范圍的日益擴(kuò)大對(duì)人權(quán)和環(huán)境義務(wù)以及主權(quán)監(jiān)管的其他政策目標(biāo)(例如根本安全)的不良影響。
自然資源永久主權(quán)原則由國(guó)家發(fā)展出來(lái),目的是對(duì)抗當(dāng)時(shí)日益具有掠奪性的外國(guó)投資體制。富裕的殖民國(guó)家常常在那些政府不能代表人民的國(guó)家進(jìn)行投資,這些國(guó)家包括殖民國(guó)家、托管?chē)?guó)家、受人厭惡的腐敗的軍事獨(dú)裁者。
很自然地,這些政府下臺(tái)后,獲得合同的外國(guó)公司也喪失了促進(jìn)其業(yè)務(wù)的法律和監(jiān)管的國(guó)家機(jī)制保障。有時(shí)政府更迭導(dǎo)致席卷全國(guó)的國(guó)有化浪潮,尤其是外資份額極大的石油業(yè)成為國(guó)家直接控制的首要目標(biāo)。①M(fèi).Sornarajah,Resistance and Change in the International on Foreign Investment 34 (Cambridge University Press 2015); B.Rajagopal, From Resistance to Renewal: The Third World,Social Movements and the Expansion of International Institutions, 41 Harvard International Law Journal 529 (2000); H.Ludsin, Returning Sovereignty to the People,46 Vanderbilt Journal of International Law 97 (2013); Y.Tyagi, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, 4 Cambridge Journal of International Comparative Law 588(2015); E.Duruigbo,Permanent Sovereignty and Peoples’Ownership of Natural Resources in International Law,38 George Washington International Law Review 33 (2006); J.Crawford,The Rights of Peoples: Peoples or Governments?,in J.Crawford (eds.),The Rights of Peoples 55,63 (Oxford University Press 1988); K.Miles,The Origins of International Investment Law: Empire,Environment and the Safeguarding of Captial (Cambridge University Press 2013).
在亞非新獨(dú)立國(guó)家構(gòu)成聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)多數(shù)的情形下,將此政治意愿固定為法律原則成為其共同目標(biāo)。這些國(guó)家首次希望以獨(dú)立立法者,在源于歐洲、歐洲和北美利益的通常具有結(jié)構(gòu)性?xún)?yōu)勢(shì)的法律制度中表達(dá)此意愿。①N.J.Schrijver,Sovereignty over Natural Resources 3 (Cambridge University Press 1997); S.K.Asante, International Law and Foreign Investment: A Reappraisal, 37 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 588 (1988); B.S.Chimni, An Outline of a Marxist Course on Public International Law, 17 Leiden Journal of International Law 1(2004); S.C.Jain, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources and Nationalization in International Law,19 Journal of the Indian Law Institute 242 (1977); S.R.Chowdhury, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, in K.Hossain & S.R.Chowdhury (eds.),Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resource’s: Principles and Practice 1 (St Martins Press 1995).
盡管聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)全體會(huì)議上不能通過(guò)具有約束力的決議,但《世界人權(quán)宣言》②Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNGA Resolution,10 December 1948.的通過(guò)、紐倫堡原則的確立③Affirmation of the Principles of International Law Recognized by the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal,UNGA,A/RES/95,11 December 1946.以及對(duì)《防止及懲治滅絕種族罪公約》④Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide,9 December 1948.的廣泛加入,表明會(huì)員國(guó)能夠?qū)?guó)際法立法框架和程序施加重大影響。
在區(qū)域?qū)用?,一些政治?dú)立但經(jīng)濟(jì)依附的拉美國(guó)家呼吁根據(jù)人民自由處分其自然資源的權(quán)利,收回20世紀(jì)上半期出讓給外國(guó)勢(shì)力的權(quán)利。例如,作為區(qū)域聯(lián)合的早期文件之一,《美洲國(guó)家組織憲章》規(guī)定各國(guó)有權(quán)自由地發(fā)展其文化、社會(huì)和經(jīng)濟(jì)生活。⑤Charter of the Organisation of American States,Article 7.類(lèi)似的,1933年《國(guó)家權(quán)利義務(wù)公約》第3條宣告:
“國(guó)家有權(quán)維護(hù)其完整和獨(dú)立,實(shí)現(xiàn)保護(hù)與繁榮,以自認(rèn)為適當(dāng)?shù)姆绞浇M織國(guó)家,為其利益立法,管理服務(wù),定義其法院的管轄權(quán)和權(quán)限?!雹轈onvention on the Rights and Duties of States (26 December 1933) (1936)CLXV LNTS 19.See generally,N.J.Schrijver,Sovereignty over Natural Resources 36(Cambridge University Press 1997); G.Elian,The Principle of Sovereignty over Natural Resources 90 (Kluwer 1979); K.Hossain & S.R.Chowdhury (eds.),Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources: Principles and Practice 90 (Bloomsbury 1984); S.Bannerjee,The Concept of Permanent of Sovereignty over Natural Resources: An Analysis, 8 Indian Journal of International Law 515 (1968).
在全球?qū)用?,智利提議聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)討論該問(wèn)題,以達(dá)成更具代表性的共識(shí),充分考慮戰(zhàn)后國(guó)際社會(huì)的觀點(diǎn)變更。①N.J.Schrijver,Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources: Balancing Rights and Duties 36 (Cambridge University Press 1997).
經(jīng)濟(jì)欠發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家提出一系列提議,如烏拉圭、波蘭、玻利維亞、印度、埃及、伊朗、印度尼西亞支持宣告國(guó)家具有為民族利益發(fā)展經(jīng)濟(jì)、自由開(kāi)發(fā)自然資源的權(quán)利這一建議。
在此背景下,一系列事件的發(fā)生影響了國(guó)家的相關(guān)意見(jiàn)。
大規(guī)模國(guó)有化成為普遍現(xiàn)象,最為著名的是1933年具有在伊朗運(yùn)營(yíng)特許權(quán)的英伊石油公司的國(guó)有化。②J.Hyde, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Wealth and Resources, 50 American Journal of International Law 854 (1956); P.J.O’Keefe, The United Nations and Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, 8 Journal of World Trade Law 239(1964); K.N.Gess, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources: An Analytical Review of the United Nations Declaration and Its Genesis, 13 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 398 (1964); P.de Waart, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources as a Corner-stone for International Economic Rights and Duties, 24 Netherlands International Law Review 304 (1977); N.J.Schrijver, Fifty Years Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources: The 1962 UN Declaration as the Opinio Juris Communis, in M.Bungengerb &S.M.Hobe (eds.),Sovereignty over Natural Resources 15 (Springer 2015).其他知名的被國(guó)有化對(duì)象包括危地馬拉的聯(lián)合水果公司、埃及蘇伊士運(yùn)河公司、玻利維亞的錫業(yè)、智利的銅業(yè)、印度尼西亞的荷蘭公司、阿根廷的天然氣行業(yè)、墨西哥的石油產(chǎn)業(yè)、印度的煤與銀行業(yè)。③J.Fleming, The Nationalization of Chile’s Large Copper Companies in Contemporary Interstate Relations, 18 Villanova Law Review 593 (1973); H.Raj,Protection of Foreign Investment,Property,and Nationalization in India (Deep & Deep 1989); G.Fouilloux,La Nationalisation et le droint international public (Librarie Generale de droit et de Jurisprudence 1962); W.D.Verwey & N.J.Schrijver, The Taking of Foreign Property under International Law: A New Legal Perspective?, 15 Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 3 (1984); Adoeye A.Akinsanya,The Expropriation of Multinational Property in the Third World (Praeger 1980); S.C.Jain,Nationalisation of Foreign Property: A Study in North South Dialogue (Deep and Deep 1982).
順理成章地,這些國(guó)家尋求使其行為合法化的解決方法,使之符合現(xiàn)行國(guó)際法,而該國(guó)際法建立于作為國(guó)際投資法前身的外國(guó)人財(cái)產(chǎn)保護(hù)規(guī)則的牢固傳統(tǒng)和基礎(chǔ)之上。
另一方面,發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家拒絕改變外國(guó)人財(cái)產(chǎn)保護(hù)的既有規(guī)則,同時(shí)強(qiáng)調(diào)自然資源開(kāi)發(fā)應(yīng)服務(wù)于全球發(fā)展目標(biāo),而不僅僅為國(guó)家利益。①S.M.Schwebel, The Story of the United Nation’s Declaration on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, 49 American Bar Association Journal 463 (1963);UN,Doc.A/C.2/SR.173; UN,Doc.A/C.2/SR.172; UN Commission on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources,Historical Summary of Discussions Relating to the Question of Permanent Sovereignty of Peoples and Nations over Their Natural Wealth and Resources,UN,Doc.A/AC.97/1.
這些國(guó)家有美國(guó)、荷蘭、澳大利亞、加拿大,它們拒絕改變?nèi)魏尉S護(hù)其利益的幾個(gè)世紀(jì)以來(lái)的傳統(tǒng)國(guó)際法原則。戰(zhàn)后《大西洋憲章》完全體現(xiàn)了這一立場(chǎng),規(guī)定其目標(biāo)是為全人類(lèi)利益而開(kāi)發(fā)自然資源,并予以最大化利用。②UN Secretariat,The Status of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Wealth and Resources,UN,Doc.A/AC.97/5; N.J.Schrijver,Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources: Balancing Rights and Duties 42 (Cambridge University Press 1997).
意見(jiàn)分歧最終導(dǎo)致兩大陣營(yíng)國(guó)家及其立場(chǎng)的妥協(xié)。一方面,一些國(guó)家保護(hù)現(xiàn)行國(guó)際秩序;另一方面,另一些國(guó)家希望實(shí)現(xiàn)國(guó)際經(jīng)濟(jì)新秩序,新興國(guó)家能行使全面經(jīng)濟(jì)主權(quán),實(shí)現(xiàn)和發(fā)展其發(fā)展目標(biāo)。③M.Bedjoui,Towards a New International Economic Order (UNESCO 1979); R.P.Anand,New States and International Law 86 (Hope 2008); M.E.Solomon, From NIO to Now and the Unfinishable Story of Economic Justice,62 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 31,36 (2013).
特別相關(guān)的是聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)1952年第67 屆大會(huì)決議④See UNGA,Res.523 (VI),12 January 1952 and UNGA,Res.626 (VII),21 December 1952.以及聯(lián)合國(guó)人權(quán)委員會(huì)向聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)提出的建立“自然資源永久主權(quán)委員會(huì)”的建議。該委員會(huì)由來(lái)自世界各大地理區(qū)域的代表組成,任務(wù)是考察并澄清自然資源永久主權(quán)權(quán)利的現(xiàn)實(shí)內(nèi)容和范圍。⑤UNGA,Res.1314 (XII),12 December 1958.See also,K.N.Gess, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources: An Analytical Review of the United Nations Declara-Tion and Its Genesis,13 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 398 (1964).
在聯(lián)合國(guó)秘書(shū)處的研究⑥UN Secretariat,The Status of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Wealth and Resources,UN,Doc.A/AC.97/5.和委員會(huì)會(huì)員國(guó)評(píng)論⑦UN Commission on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources,Report of the Commission on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources,UN,Doc.A/AC.97/13,26 May 1961.的基礎(chǔ)上,三份決議草案被提交給聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)第二委員會(huì)考慮。經(jīng)過(guò)發(fā)展中國(guó)家和發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的反復(fù)討論和妥協(xié)后,該決議獲得通過(guò),60票贊成,5票反對(duì),22票棄權(quán),并提交聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)全會(huì)審議。①UN,Doc.A/C.2/SR.858,3 December 1962.
聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)則以78 票贊成、2 票反對(duì)通過(guò)《關(guān)于自然資源永久主權(quán)的決議》(以下簡(jiǎn)稱(chēng)《決議》)。②Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources,UNGA,Res.1803 (XVII),14 December 1962.仍實(shí)行種族隔離的南非和法國(guó)投了反對(duì)票,認(rèn)為該議題需要先后經(jīng)過(guò)聯(lián)合國(guó)國(guó)際法委員會(huì)和第六委員會(huì)的審議。③UN,Doc.A/PV.1194 (XVII),14 December 1962.
《決議》鞏固了自然資源永久主權(quán)原則在國(guó)際法中的地位。在其討論過(guò)程中出現(xiàn)的爭(zhēng)議問(wèn)題包括:投資合同必須得到遵守;國(guó)家實(shí)施國(guó)有化和征收外國(guó)財(cái)產(chǎn)的權(quán)利;國(guó)家非殖民化之前的自然資源所有權(quán)。
最重要的是,達(dá)成普遍共識(shí)以確立民族和國(guó)家對(duì)其自然資源的不可剝奪的永久主權(quán),以及征收和國(guó)有化時(shí)依據(jù)“適當(dāng)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)”進(jìn)行補(bǔ)償。
事實(shí)上,《決議》內(nèi)容促使當(dāng)時(shí)學(xué)者認(rèn)為《決議》是經(jīng)濟(jì)非殖民化決議,而反對(duì)者認(rèn)為其是國(guó)有化決議。④A.Akinsanya, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources and the Future of Foreign Investment, 7 Journal of International Studies 124 (1978); R.Dolzer, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources and Economic Decolinization,7 Human Rights Law Journal 217 (1986); G.Schwarzenberger, The Principles and Standards of International Economic Law,117 Recueil des Cours 7,32 (1966 I); C.N.Brower & J.B.Tepe Jr., The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States: A Reflection or Rejection of International Law?,9 International Lawyer 295 (1975); M.E.Ellis, The New International Economic Order: The Debate over the Legal Effects of General Assembly Resolutions Revisited,15 California Western International Law Journal 658 (1985); B.H.Weston, The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties and the Deprivation of Foreign Owned Wealth, 75 American Journal of International Law 437 (1981).
對(duì)《決議》核心條款的考察有助于我們理解,為何此后在那些至少理論上達(dá)成的妥協(xié)在落實(shí)過(guò)程中卻爭(zhēng)議不斷。
事實(shí)上,在各國(guó)大量締結(jié)BITs 之前的那個(gè)時(shí)期,各國(guó)在國(guó)有化或征收的補(bǔ)償標(biāo)準(zhǔn)問(wèn)題上尖銳對(duì)立。發(fā)展中國(guó)家的主要關(guān)切體現(xiàn)在1962年聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)1803決議第四段:
“采取國(guó)有化、征收或征用措施,應(yīng)當(dāng)以公用事業(yè)、社會(huì)安全或國(guó)家利益等理由或原因作為依據(jù),這些事業(yè)、安全或利益被公認(rèn)為較純屬?lài)?guó)內(nèi)外個(gè)人的利益或私家的利益重要得多。
在此類(lèi)場(chǎng)合,采取上述措施以行使其主權(quán)的國(guó)家應(yīng)當(dāng)按照本國(guó)現(xiàn)行法規(guī)以及國(guó)際法的規(guī)定,對(duì)業(yè)主給予適當(dāng)?shù)馁r償。在賠償問(wèn)題發(fā)生爭(zhēng)執(zhí)時(shí),應(yīng)當(dāng)盡量提交采取上述措施國(guó)家的國(guó)內(nèi)司法裁判。但主權(quán)國(guó)家及其他當(dāng)事人如另有協(xié)議,則應(yīng)通過(guò)仲裁或國(guó)際審判解決爭(zhēng)端。”①Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources,UNGA,Res.1803 (XVII),14 December 1962,para.4.
《關(guān)于自然資源永久主權(quán)的決議》可以被視為聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)中兩種截然相反的觀點(diǎn)的最終妥協(xié)與和解。即使聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)繼續(xù)相關(guān)工作,無(wú)論是就該議題的未來(lái)發(fā)展還是加強(qiáng)自然資源永久主權(quán)原則或者明確其內(nèi)容,都幾乎難以達(dá)成協(xié)議。
聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)之后的決議,即《國(guó)際經(jīng)濟(jì)新秩序宣言》②Declaration on the New International Economic Order,UNGA,Res.3201(S-VI) ,1 May 1974.或《各國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)權(quán)利義務(wù)憲章》③Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States UNGA,Res.3281 (XXIX),12 December 1974.,系在六日戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)和石油危機(jī)后通過(guò),不允許各方妥協(xié)或試圖軟化各方立場(chǎng)。
事實(shí)上,學(xué)者的分歧今日仍可見(jiàn)。一方是“第三世界的國(guó)際法觀”,④See for eg.M.Sornarajah, State Responsibility and Bilateral Investment Treaties,20 Journal of World Trade Law 79 (1986); M.Sornarajah,The International Law on Foreign Investment (Cambridge University Press 2017);A.Anghie,Imperialism,Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge University Press 2004); B.S.Chimni, International Institutions Today: An Imperial Global State in the Making,15 European Journal of International Law 1 (2004); K.Michelson, Rhetoric and Rage: Third World Voices in International Legal Discourse,16 Wisconsin International Law Journal 353 (1998); J.Gathi, Third World Approaches to International Economic Governance,in Richard Falk et al. (eds.),International Law and the Third World 255 (Routledge Cavendish 2008); M.Bedjaoui,Towards a New International Economic Order (UNESCO 1979); K.Hossain(ed.),Legal Aspects of the New International Economic Order (Bloomsbury 1980); K.Hossain & S.R.Chowdhury (eds.),Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources: Principles and Practice (Bloomsbury 1984); R.P.Anand,Confrontation or Cooperation?,International and the Developing Countries (Hope 2011).支持聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)1803 號(hào)決議后發(fā)展的規(guī)則的法律效力。一方是西方學(xué)者,如Schwarzen-berger①G.Schwarzenberger, The Principles and Standards of International Economic Law, 177 Recueil des Cours 7 (1966 I).,Dolzer②R.Dolzer, Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources and Economic Decolonization, 7 Human Rights Law Journal 217 (1986); R.Dolzer, New Foundations of the Law of Expropriation of Alien Property, 75 American Journal of International Law 553 (1981).,Brower③C.N.Brower, The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States and the American Constitutional Tradition: A Bicentennial Perspective on the New International Economic Order, 10 International Lawyer 701(1976); C.N.Brower & S.Blanchard, Whats in a Meme?,The Truth about Investor-State Arbitration: Why It Need Not,and Must Not,Be Repossessed by States, 52 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 689 (2014).,Sylacuse④J.W.Sylacuse, BIT by BIT: The Growth of Bilateral Investment Treaties and Their Impact on Foreign Investment in Developing Countries,24 International Lawyer 655 (1990).,Schachter⑤O.Schachter, Compensation for Expropriation, 78 American Journal of International Law 121 (1984).,Mann⑥F.A.Mann, British Treaties for the Promotion and Protection of Investments, 52 British Yearbook of International Law 241 (1982).,Feur⑦G.Feuer, Reflexions sur La Charte des Droits et Devoirs economiques des etats,79 Revue Generale du Droit International Public 273 (1975).,Piper⑧Piper, New Directions in the Protection of American Owned Property Aborad, 4 International Trade Law Journal 315 (1979).,Weston⑨B.H.Weston, The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties, 75 American Journal of International Law 437 (1981).,Haight⑩G.W.Haight, The New International Economic Order and the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, 9 International Lawyer 4 (1975).,美國(guó)律師協(xié)會(huì)?ABA Section on International Law,Resolution on the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties,https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/intlaw/policy/investment/economicrightsdutiesofstates.authcheckdam.pdf,visited on 15 May 2018.,都認(rèn)為《各國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)權(quán)利義務(wù)憲章》僅是無(wú)任何法律效力的政治宣言。
發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家控制多數(shù)資本和技術(shù),慣用堅(jiān)決對(duì)抗與逐個(gè)談判策略,漠視其他國(guó)家試圖實(shí)現(xiàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)自決或非殖民化并取得對(duì)自然賦予的豐富自然資源真正絕對(duì)主權(quán)的要求。
在聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)的戰(zhàn)斗(而非戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng))中失利后,資本輸出國(guó)開(kāi)始奉行雙邊談判或BITs 政策,以利用其在基于經(jīng)濟(jì)實(shí)力而非法律原則的舊的談判機(jī)制下的強(qiáng)勢(shì)地位。其政策基礎(chǔ)是發(fā)達(dá)資本輸出國(guó)在雙邊談判中的強(qiáng)勢(shì)地位,而在多邊論壇上欠發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家數(shù)量占絕對(duì)優(yōu)勢(shì)?,F(xiàn)在仍是如此!
很大程度上,BITs 談判的運(yùn)作有利于推動(dòng)外國(guó)財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)的國(guó)際保護(hù),其創(chuàng)設(shè)的體制對(duì)外國(guó)人財(cái)產(chǎn)的保護(hù)遠(yuǎn)超國(guó)際習(xí)慣法。BITs 體制為投資提供了全面和影響深遠(yuǎn)的保護(hù),包括開(kāi)放性的保證、不確定含義而由當(dāng)事人選擇的仲裁員在未來(lái)確定的具體義務(wù)。
BITs 的興起部分是由于發(fā)達(dá)資本輸出國(guó)未能通過(guò)聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)的多邊論壇保護(hù)其對(duì)外投資。聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)的“一國(guó)一票”制度使其不能成為發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家表達(dá)關(guān)切的適當(dāng)途徑,發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家迅速轉(zhuǎn)向雙邊談判。1959年出現(xiàn)第一個(gè)雙邊投資協(xié)定——德國(guó)—巴基斯坦BIT后,至今全球雙邊投資協(xié)定已有3000多個(gè)。①Cecil Abraham,Shift in Paradigm of International Trade and Investment Law in Asia and Africa: A Call for Super-regionalism (the Move from Regional Free Trade Agreements to Cross-continent Agreements Such as CPTPP),AALCO Annual Arbitration Forum,Kuala Lumpur,22 July 2018,para.4.
這一點(diǎn)在兩位英國(guó)官員發(fā)表的論文中得以確認(rèn),這兩位官員在《英國(guó)投資保護(hù)條約政策》的制定中起著至關(guān)重要的作用。該論文提及《各國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)權(quán)利義務(wù)憲章》,并指出:
“很明顯發(fā)展中國(guó)家不認(rèn)為這些表述僅是政治宣言。它們是行動(dòng)指南。新獨(dú)立國(guó)家主張拋棄經(jīng)濟(jì)殖民主義和他們成為國(guó)際社會(huì)成員之前形成的國(guó)際法的枷鎖,進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)而廣泛的征收。提供的補(bǔ)償也不是充分、及時(shí)和有效。
幾乎每個(gè)月都有新的征收法律擺到外交部辦公桌上、占據(jù)報(bào)紙的財(cái)經(jīng)版面,侵蝕潛在外國(guó)投資者的信心。這時(shí)發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家意識(shí)到對(duì)憲章的一致同意所蘊(yùn)含的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),憲章以近乎有約束力的條約用語(yǔ),宣誓了選擇經(jīng)濟(jì)制度的不可剝奪的主權(quán)權(quán)利而不受?chē)?guó)際法約束。
美國(guó)、英國(guó)及歐共體多數(shù)國(guó)家對(duì)《各國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)權(quán)利義務(wù)憲章》投下反對(duì)票。多數(shù)其他資本輸出國(guó)棄權(quán)。即使該憲章是聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)多數(shù)通過(guò),其支持者所主張的權(quán)威和法律地位當(dāng)時(shí)便被拒絕——此后亦將被拒絕。溫順者也會(huì)反抗。②E.Denza & S.Brooks, Investment Protection Treaties: United Kingdom Experience, 36 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 908,909 (1987).
美國(guó)一貫懷疑習(xí)慣國(guó)際法提供的保護(hù),因此締結(jié)了諸多友好通商航海條約,不僅保護(hù)美國(guó)在發(fā)展中國(guó)家的投資,而且涵蓋其在西歐國(guó)家的投資。①K.J.Vandevelde, The Bilateral Investment Treaty Program of the United States,2 Cornell International Law Journal 201 (1988).
盡管美國(guó)有近22 個(gè)生效的上述條約,但到了20世紀(jì)60年代后期,由于亞非發(fā)展中國(guó)家日益認(rèn)識(shí)到,無(wú)監(jiān)管或“自由化”(當(dāng)時(shí)還含有“放任自由”政策的意思)對(duì)東道國(guó)無(wú)任何實(shí)質(zhì)利益,美國(guó)不再致力于締結(jié)此類(lèi)條約。②J.W.Sylacuse, BIT by BIT: The Growth of Bilateral Investment Treaties and Their Impact on Foregin Investment in Developing Countries,24 International Lawyer 655(1990); J.W.Sylacuse, Towards a New Treaty Framework for Direct Foreign Investment,50 Journal of Air Law and Commerce 969 (1985).
另一方面,歐洲各經(jīng)濟(jì)體在“二戰(zhàn)”后恢復(fù)的過(guò)程中,迅速通過(guò)締結(jié)投資保護(hù)協(xié)定保護(hù)其外資。
由于戰(zhàn)敗而喪失全部海外投資的德國(guó),在新的條約締結(jié)中領(lǐng)先,于1959年與巴基斯坦訂立第一個(gè)BIT。其他歐洲國(guó)家迅速跟進(jìn),至20世紀(jì)70年代末已與大量發(fā)展中國(guó)家締結(jié)了近150個(gè)BITs。③ICC,1980 Bilateral Treaties for International Investment.
受到歐洲國(guó)家BITs 成功實(shí)施的啟示,美國(guó)于1981年里根總統(tǒng)任期內(nèi)開(kāi)啟其BIT 計(jì)劃。對(duì)此類(lèi)條約,美國(guó)參議院唯一擔(dān)憂(yōu)的是國(guó)家安全問(wèn)題,但這一問(wèn)題通過(guò)例外條款得以充分解決:締約國(guó)可采取必要措施應(yīng)對(duì)任何異常和例外的國(guó)家安全威脅。④W.E.Coughling, The US Bilateral Investment Treaty: An Answer to Performance Requirements?,in B.Fisher & J.Turner (eds.),Regulating Multinational Enterprise:National and International Challenges (Praeger 1983); J.E.Pattison, The United States-Egypt Bilateral Investment Treaty: A Prototype for Future Bilateral Negotiations, 16 Cornell Journal of International Law 305 (1983); K.S.Gudgeon, United States Bilateral Investment Treaties: Comments on Their Origin,Purposes,and General Treatment Standards, 4 International Tax and Business Lawyer 104 (1986).
同時(shí)期的另一發(fā)展是伊朗—美國(guó)求償庭在海牙的建立,其鞏固了國(guó)際法在外國(guó)人和東道國(guó)政府間爭(zhēng)端中的適用。求償解決宣言是伊朗—美國(guó)求償庭的成立文件,其第5條規(guī)定:
“仲裁庭裁判所有案件,須基于尊重法律,適用仲裁庭認(rèn)為應(yīng)適用的商法和國(guó)際法的法律規(guī)則和原則,考慮相關(guān)貿(mào)易慣例、合同條款和變更的情勢(shì)?!雹軩eclaration of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria Concerning the Settlement of Claims by the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran,19 January 1981,Article 5.
除了歐洲國(guó)家,一些亞洲發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家也與其他欠發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家訂立BITs。例如,科威特與巴基斯坦①Bilateral Investment Treaty between Kuwait and Pakistan,17 March 1983.、摩洛哥②Bilateral Investment Treaty between Kuwait and Morocco,3 April 1980.和斯里蘭卡③Agreement Concerning the Encouragement and Reciprocal Protection of Investment,27 August 1988.等國(guó)訂立了BITs。
BITs 網(wǎng)絡(luò)擴(kuò)張之時(shí),新自由主義是盛行的經(jīng)濟(jì)理論,主張投資貿(mào)易完全自由化,以促進(jìn)效率和最大程度利用自然資源。
但是,與成功創(chuàng)設(shè)世界貿(mào)易組織的1994《關(guān)稅和貿(mào)易總協(xié)定》不同,調(diào)整投資的多邊公約的嘗試完全失敗,無(wú)人支持。
關(guān)于發(fā)展中國(guó)家為何緩慢但不得不接受BITs,Guzman 教授提出了有趣的洞見(jiàn)。④A.T.Guzman, Why LDCs Sign Treaties that Hurt Them: Explaining the Popularity of Bilateral Investment Treaties,38 Virginia Journal of International Law 639,666(1998).他指出,最不發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家作為集體,一貫拒絕“赫爾規(guī)則”(及時(shí)、充分和有效補(bǔ)償)或?qū)φ魇栈驀?guó)有化適用國(guó)際法。另一方面,如果最不發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家單獨(dú)接受這些規(guī)則,則有機(jī)會(huì)得到急需的外國(guó)資本,相對(duì)于那些不接受的國(guó)家獲得競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)。因此,囚徒困境可以解釋最不發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家看似不合理的行為,即其作為個(gè)體有動(dòng)機(jī)作出與集體行動(dòng)相反的“理性選擇”。
其他學(xué)者,如Dolzer⑤R.Dolzer, New Foundations of the Law of Expropriation of Alien Property,75 American Journal of International Law 553 (1981).和Sornarajah⑥M.Sornarajah,The International Law of Foreign Investments 259 (Oxford University Press 1994); A.T.Guzman, M.Sornarajah’s The International Law of Foreign Investment, 6 European Journal of International Law 612 (1995).Also see generally,A.Kaushal, Revisiting History: How the Past Matters for the Present Backlash against the Foreign Investment Regime, 50 Harvard International Law Journal 491 (2009).,也分析了最不發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的雙向行為,將其歸于條約承諾的控制程度、明確性、觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)同的態(tài)度變化,而非歸于他們不同意的習(xí)慣法規(guī)則。
印度政府法律顧問(wèn)P.S.勞2000年的觀點(diǎn)可能最適當(dāng)?shù)刈プ×擞《仍贐IT 談判中的情感和理性:
“可以用較少的意識(shí)形態(tài)和更實(shí)用的方式對(duì)待這些概念。推動(dòng)這個(gè)新趨勢(shì)的因素有國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)的全球化、承認(rèn)有必要提供中立裁判或仲裁迅速公平解決商事?tīng)?zhēng)端?!雹貾.S.Rao, Bilateral Investment Protection Agreements: A Legal Framework for the Protection of Foreign Investments,26 Commonwealth Law Bulletin 623,626 (2000).
很多學(xué)者強(qiáng)調(diào)的另一因素是國(guó)際金融組織的作用,特別是國(guó)際復(fù)興開(kāi)發(fā)銀行(世界銀行)和國(guó)際貨幣基金組織。由于固定匯率政策崩潰和蘇聯(lián)解體,世界銀行和國(guó)際貨幣基金組織的功能與布雷頓森林會(huì)議時(shí)相比發(fā)生了巨變。②D.Kaldermis, IMF Conditionality as Investment Regulation: A Theoretical Analysis, 13 Social and Legal Studies 103,120 (2004); A.Kaushal, Revisiting History: How the Past Matters for the Present Backlash against the Foreign Investment Regime,50 Harvard International Law Journal 491,504 (2009).它們現(xiàn)在服務(wù)于經(jīng)濟(jì)強(qiáng)國(guó)及其公司的利益,通過(guò)貸款條件性、善治或法治指標(biāo)等不受限制的措施,以吸引急需外資促進(jìn)發(fā)展為由,將投資自由化條款強(qiáng)加于借款國(guó)。③R.Peet,The Unholy Trinity: The IMF,World Bank and WTO 73 (Zed Books 2009); A.Buira, An Analysis of IMF Conditionality, in A.Buira (ed.),Challenges to the World Bank and IMF: Developing Country Perspectives 55,61 (Anthem 2003); B.S.Chimni, International Institutions Today: An Imperial Global State in the Making, 15 European Journal of International Law 1 (2004); A.Anghie, International Financial Institutions, in C.Reus-Smit (ed.),The Politics of International Law 217 (Cambridge University Press 2009).
雙邊投資協(xié)定生效國(guó)家被視為投資風(fēng)險(xiǎn)較低,但不得不承認(rèn)的是東道國(guó)承擔(dān)了風(fēng)險(xiǎn),而且最終東道國(guó)為逐步實(shí)現(xiàn)人權(quán)而投入的能力受到影響。
一些學(xué)者運(yùn)用宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)模型和統(tǒng)計(jì)進(jìn)行實(shí)證研究,得出了沖突的結(jié)論。④M.Hallward-Dremieier,Do Bilateral Investment Treaties Attract FDI?,Only A Bit…And They Could Bite (2003),World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3121,https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/1098 6/18118,accessed on 15 May 2018; J.W.Yackee, Do Bilateral Investment Treaties Promote Foreign Direct Investment?,Some Hints from Alternative Evidence, 51 Virginia Journal of International Law 397 (2010); K.P.Sauvant & L.Sach,The Effect of Treaties on Foreign Direct Investment: Bilateral Investment Treaties,Double Taxation Treaties,and Investment Flows (Oxford University Press 2009);S.Frank, Stabilization Clauses and Foreign Direction Investment: Presumptions versus Realities, 16 Journal of World Investment & Trade 88,104 (2015).Sylacuse 教授認(rèn)為,發(fā)展中國(guó)家與主要資本輸出國(guó)訂立的一系列BITs 短期內(nèi)表現(xiàn)出吸引更多投資的堅(jiān)定趨勢(shì)。⑤See J.W.Sylacuse, Of Handcuffs and Signals: Investment Treaties and Capital Flows to Developing Countries, 58 Harvard International Law Journal 127 (2017).
另一方面,有學(xué)者提出,BITs 未被投資者視為投資前的重要條件。Sornarajah教授指出,美國(guó)公司是東南亞和南亞國(guó)家的主要投資者,然而美國(guó)與這些國(guó)家并沒(méi)有生效的BITs。①M(fèi).Sornarajah, International Investment Law as Development Law: The Obsolesce of a Fraudulent System, 7 European Yearbook of International Economic Law 209,225 (2016).
其他研究表明,發(fā)展中國(guó)家不認(rèn)為BITs 對(duì)其經(jīng)濟(jì)有重大影響,也不認(rèn)為其是從資本輸出國(guó)吸引投資的戰(zhàn)略工具。②Wintershall Aktiengesellschaft v.Argentina,ICSID Case No.ARB/04/14,para.85.有學(xué)者認(rèn)為,BITs 僅是“合影的機(jī)會(huì)”,至多是國(guó)家間善意的表現(xiàn),即效力有限的君子協(xié)定。③L.S.Poulsen & Emma Aisbett, When the Claim Hits: Bilateral Investment Treaties and Bounded Rational Learning, 65 World Politics 273 (2013).
例如,“巴基斯坦遭受數(shù)百萬(wàn)美元賠償?shù)闹俨谜?qǐng)求打擊時(shí),官員才真正意識(shí)到1959年來(lái)歷任政府簽訂的條約的影響”,巴基斯坦總檢察長(zhǎng)Makhdoom Khan先生公開(kāi)承認(rèn),“BITs的簽訂原本只被看做高層代表團(tuán)訪問(wèn)時(shí)的合影機(jī)會(huì)”。④Robert G.Volterra & Giorgio Francesco Mandelli, India and Brazil : Recent Steps towards Host State Control in the Investment Treaty Dispute Resolution Paradigm,6 Indian Journal of Arbitration Law 90,94 (2017); Fali S.Nariman,Keynote Address-Redefining the Landscape of ADR in Asian Jurisdiction,7 Kuala Lumpur International ADR Week (2017).
當(dāng)今國(guó)際法學(xué)者逐漸達(dá)成共識(shí):由眾多BITs 構(gòu)成的現(xiàn)行外國(guó)投資體制迫使國(guó)家為其監(jiān)管行為向公司作出賠償。
換言之,人們逐漸認(rèn)識(shí)到,聯(lián)合國(guó)大會(huì)1803 號(hào)決議試圖保護(hù)的權(quán)利在很多方面受到限制?,F(xiàn)行BITs 體制將權(quán)力賦予投資者和國(guó)家依據(jù)程序選擇的仲裁員,常常要求國(guó)家為行使至關(guān)重要的行政、司法和立法職能作出賠償。
仲裁員Toby Landau的總結(jié)是最好的說(shuō)明:⑤T.Landau,Response to the Report: Rethinking the Substantive Standards of Protection under Investment Treaties,Mauritius International Arbitration Conference: Flaws and Presumptions Rethinking Arbitration Law and Practice in a New Arbitral Seat,13-14 December 2010; M.Feria-Tinta, Like Oil and Water? Human Rights in Investment Arbitration in the Wake of Philip Morris v.Uruguay, 35 Journal of International Arbitration 601(2017).
“你的裁決看似涉及單個(gè)投資者的利益,但這樣你很可能影響整整一個(gè)群體。
如果你裁決碳排放配額制度違反雙邊投資協(xié)定,以保護(hù)在某國(guó)的特定煤電廠的利益,你很可能影響整個(gè)國(guó)家的環(huán)境政策。
如果你裁決在坦桑尼亞供水系統(tǒng)的投資者的權(quán)利,你很可能影響達(dá)累斯薩拉姆35萬(wàn)用水者。
如果你質(zhì)疑并裁決南非的黑人經(jīng)濟(jì)賦權(quán)政策,以保護(hù)個(gè)別采礦者的利益,更大范圍的影響顯而易見(jiàn)。并且,你有權(quán)利作出與國(guó)內(nèi)公法制度不同的巨額損害賠償裁決。
你有權(quán)影響公共資金最重要的分配?!?/p>
仲裁員有權(quán)影響公共資金分配的最好例證是最近針對(duì)尼日利亞政府的裁決。①Cecil Abraham,Shift in Paradigm of International Trade and Investment Law in Asia and Africa: A Call for Super-regionalism (the Move from Regional Free Trade Agreements to Cross-continent Agreements Such as CPTPP),AAAF,22 July 2018,paras.10-12.
2018年3月16日,一家愛(ài)爾蘭國(guó)民設(shè)立的BVI公司在美國(guó)哥倫比亞地區(qū)法院起訴,請(qǐng)求執(zhí)行其于2017年獲得的裁決。該裁決由退休英國(guó)大法官Hoffman(主裁)和女王律師Anthony Evans爵士形成的仲裁庭多數(shù)意見(jiàn)作出。
“多數(shù)意見(jiàn)裁決尼日利亞支付66億美元和利息。裁決利息為23億美元,每天增加126萬(wàn)美元。在法院登記執(zhí)行時(shí),裁決總額達(dá)到90億美元。全部損害賠償源于一個(gè)公司僅投資4000萬(wàn)美元的精煉天然氣項(xiàng)目?!?/p>
Cecil Abraham 指出,“該裁決認(rèn)定的數(shù)額超過(guò)其他國(guó)際商事仲裁裁決的數(shù)額,例如2018年2月的46.3 億美元裁決,涉及烏克蘭石油天然氣公司針對(duì)俄羅斯天然氣工業(yè)股份公司的天然氣運(yùn)輸?shù)脑V請(qǐng);2015年針對(duì)伊拉克庫(kù)爾德斯坦地區(qū)政府的19.8億美元裁決;2011年??松梨诠竞蜌づ乒緦?duì)尼日利亞國(guó)家石油公司勝訴的20 億美元裁決。可以確定,在哥倫比亞地區(qū)法院執(zhí)行的這一裁決僅次于針對(duì)俄羅斯尤科斯仲裁案的500億美元”。
Cecil Abraham 認(rèn)為上述例子說(shuō)明了很多發(fā)展中國(guó)家對(duì)投資者—國(guó)家爭(zhēng)端解決(BITs)的不滿(mǎn),即明顯的合法性缺失。由一個(gè)或三個(gè)仲裁員組成的私人仲裁庭對(duì)國(guó)家主權(quán)行使的合法性作出裁決,是否合法?私人仲裁庭在公眾視野之外的私人程序中裁判國(guó)家行為是否合法?
例如,像Matrix 律師行的Zachary Douglas 女王律師那樣的獨(dú)任仲裁員,憑什么在倫敦國(guó)際仲裁院里,在一個(gè)吉布提拒絕參加的仲裁程序中,宣布一項(xiàng)吉布提法律[該法試圖就一個(gè)授予投資者(迪拜港口世界集團(tuán))在多拉雷集裝箱碼頭的壟斷性權(quán)利的合同進(jìn)行重新談判]非法并無(wú)效?
的確,政府必須對(duì)合同條款承擔(dān)責(zé)任,但不能因此忽略政府作為當(dāng)事人的特別之處。正如伊恩·布朗利所言,主權(quán)國(guó)家不是商業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu),對(duì)人民福祉承擔(dān)責(zé)任,因此BITs不只是商業(yè)合同。②Separate Opinion on the Issues at the Quantum Phase of: CME v.Czech Republic by Ian Brownlie,13 March 2003,paras.74-75.
在2015 世界投資報(bào)告中,聯(lián)合國(guó)貿(mào)易與發(fā)展會(huì)議提出的體制改革政策承認(rèn)一些國(guó)家主權(quán)職能受到投資仲裁庭裁決影響。①UNCTAD,World Investment Report,2015- Reforming International Investment Governance,http://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=1245,accessed on 15 May 2018.
值得一提的且正在發(fā)生的例子,是常設(shè)仲裁院設(shè)立的仲裁庭審理的針對(duì)厄瓜多爾的案件②Chevron Corporation and Texaco Petroleum Corporation v.Republic of Ecuador,UNCITRAL,PCA Case No.2009-23,Order on Interim Measures,9 February 2011.該案仲裁庭裁定厄瓜多爾應(yīng)“采取一切可行措施,停止或促使停止在厄瓜多爾境內(nèi)外承認(rèn)或執(zhí)行在Lago Agrio 案中對(duì)第一原告作出的判決”。See generally,D.Kaldermis, The Authority of Investment Treaty Tribunals to Issues Orders Restraining Domestic Court Proceedings,31 ICSID Review 549 (2016).。在該案中,由于厄瓜多爾最高法院判決對(duì)在亞馬遜森林傾倒原油廢物導(dǎo)致環(huán)境惡化處以86 億美元損害賠償,投資者以拒絕公平公正待遇和實(shí)施間接征收為由提請(qǐng)仲裁。③See generally,C.Lambert, Environmental Destruction in Ecuador: Crimes against Humanity under the Rome Statute?,30 Leiden Journal of International Law 707 (2017).
BITs 對(duì)國(guó)家采取的公共政策和監(jiān)管行為的影響不再只限于發(fā)展中國(guó)家。最近,發(fā)達(dá)資本輸出國(guó)也面臨挑戰(zhàn)。他們正面臨不可預(yù)測(cè)的對(duì)其不利的投資裁決。④M.Sornarajah, International Investment Law as Development Law: The Obsolesce of a Fraudulent System, 7 European Yearbook of International Economic Law 209,227 (2016).Sornarajah 指出:“美國(guó)、加拿大等發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家很快成為最大的資本輸入國(guó)。它們開(kāi)始限制外國(guó)投資,用國(guó)家安全例外將外國(guó)投資拒之門(mén)外。它們?cè)诙鄠€(gè)仲裁中成為被告,將來(lái)還會(huì)更多。類(lèi)似情形發(fā)生在歐洲,德國(guó)在Vattenfall仲裁后立場(chǎng)發(fā)生很大改變?!边@變更了BITs的敘事。
仍在進(jìn)行的Vattenfall⑤Vattenfall AB and Others v.Germany,ICSID Case No.ARB/12/12.爭(zhēng)端涉及瑞典公司對(duì)德國(guó)的訴請(qǐng),指控關(guān)閉核電廠的命令構(gòu)成征收,在歐盟內(nèi)引起對(duì)該制度的廣泛質(zhì)疑。
更早的Metalcad 裁決讓美國(guó)有同樣的擔(dān)憂(yōu),類(lèi)似的還有飽受批評(píng)的Tecmed裁決。⑥C.N.Brower & S.Blanchard, What’s in a Meme? The Truth about Investor-State Arbitration: Why It Need Not,and Must Not,Be Repossessed by States, 52 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 689,738 (2014); Z.Douglas, Nothing if Not Critical for Investment Treaty Arbitration: Occidental,Eureko and Methanex, 28 Arbitration International 27 (2006).
在Philip Morris Asia Limited 訴澳大利亞案中,Philip Morris 質(zhì)疑政府為保護(hù)公民健康而制定的香煙平裝和標(biāo)識(shí)立法,指控其違反澳大利亞—香港BIT(1993)。Philip Morris最終敗訴。①Cecil Abraham,Shift in Paradigm of International Trade and Investment Law in Asia and Africa: A Call for Super-regionalism (the Move from Regional Free Trade Agreements to Cross-continent Agreements Such as CPTPP),AAAF,22 July 2018,para.13.
Andrew Stephenson和Lee Caroll 指出:
“BITs 旨在授益資本輸出國(guó)的公司,未預(yù)料到資本輸出國(guó)政府成為
被告(例如Phillip Morris案中的澳大利亞政府)……
當(dāng)資本輸入國(guó)開(kāi)始輸出資本時(shí),這種情形可能越來(lái)越多地出現(xiàn)。
因此,情況發(fā)生某些變化,資本輸出國(guó)越來(lái)越擔(dān)心外國(guó)投資者根據(jù)BIT 對(duì)其提出訴請(qǐng)。這導(dǎo)致他們重新考慮BIT 所賦予的權(quán)利和ICSID規(guī)定。”②Andrew Stephenson & Lee Carroll, The Trans-Pacific Partnership: Lessons Learned for ISDS,in Barton Legum (ed.),The Investment Treaty Arbitration Review 301-302.
依據(jù)聯(lián)合國(guó)貿(mào)易與發(fā)展會(huì)議的最新報(bào)告,被訴次數(shù)最多的12 個(gè)國(guó)家中有兩個(gè)發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家,即西班牙以43個(gè)爭(zhēng)端排名第三,加拿大以27個(gè)爭(zhēng)端排名第六。③UNCTAD,Investor State Dispute Settlements: Review of Developments 2017,http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/diaepcbinf2018d2_en.pdf,accessed on 20 July 2018.
歐盟與加拿大談判達(dá)成的全面經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易協(xié)議(CETA),④Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement,30 October 2016.表明國(guó)家通過(guò)條約例外條款保護(hù)其監(jiān)管權(quán)的關(guān)切。⑤C.Henckels, Protecting Regulatory Autonomy through Greater Precision in Investment Treaties: The TPP,CETA,and TTIP,19 Journal of International Economic Law 27(2016).
在對(duì)投資者—國(guó)家爭(zhēng)端解決的抗議中,維基解密披露的《跨大西洋貿(mào)易與投資伙伴關(guān)系協(xié)議》談判文本引起公眾和媒體的廣泛批評(píng)。因此,現(xiàn)在諸多學(xué)者關(guān)注如何通過(guò)起草具體的條款實(shí)現(xiàn)監(jiān)管裁量權(quán)和投資者保護(hù)的平衡,以保護(hù)國(guó)家監(jiān)管關(guān)切。⑥J.Weisman,Trans Pacific Partnership Seen as Doors for Foreign Suits against the US,New York Times,25 March 2015,https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/26/business/trans-pacific-partnership-seen-as-door-for-foreign -suits-against-us.html,accessed on 15 May 2018.
國(guó)際投資法作為特別制度主要關(guān)心投資保護(hù),其他所有事項(xiàng)在國(guó)內(nèi)和國(guó)際兩個(gè)適用法維度里都可以視為非投資關(guān)切。①盡管現(xiàn)代投資法由三部分組成,即合同法、國(guó)內(nèi)法和國(guó)際法,但為本文目的,分析僅限于傳統(tǒng)的國(guó)內(nèi)法和國(guó)際法兩分法。Jeswald W.Sylacuse,The Three Laws of International Investment: National,Contractual,and International Frameworks for Foreign Capital 35(Oxford University Press 2014).作為“多源的等同規(guī)范”②T.Broude & Y.Shany, The International Law and Policy of Multi-Sourced Equivalent Norms, in T.Broude & Y.Shany (eds.),Multi-sourced Equivalent Norms in International Law 1(2011).,它們往往相互沖突,由國(guó)家決定其關(guān)系,國(guó)家常常面臨為遵守一個(gè)規(guī)則而承擔(dān)違反另一規(guī)則的責(zé)任這一不利局面。③M.Hirsche, The Interaction between International Investment Law and Human Rights in a Sociological Perspective, in T.Broude & Y.Shany (eds.),Multi-sourced Equivalent Norms in International Law 211(Hart 2011).
近來(lái),由于國(guó)際關(guān)系復(fù)雜,這些問(wèn)題引起關(guān)注,反映在研究不同制度的文獻(xiàn)中,④J.E.Venuales, Foreign Investment and the Environment: An Ambiguous Relationship, 80 British Yearbook of International Law 244 (2009); L.Markert, The Crucial Question of Future Investment Treaties: Balancing Investors’Rights and Regulatory Interests of Host States, in M.Bungenberg & Others (eds.),International Investment Law and EU Law 146 (Cambridge University Press 2011) ; P.M.Dupuy, Unification rather than Diversification of International Law?,The Case of International Investment Law and Human Rights,in P.M.Dupuy & Others (eds.),Human Rights in International Investment Law and Arbitration 45 (Cambridge University Press 2009); International Law Commission,Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties Arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law,UN,Doc.A/CN.4/L.682 ,13 April 2006.成為各種國(guó)際法爭(zhēng)議的主題。⑤Dispute Concerning Access to Information under Article 9 of the OSPAR Convention between Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,Final Award,2 July 2003; MOX Plant Case (Ireland v.United Kingdom) Order No.3,24 June 2003,126 International Law Review 310; Case Concerning Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v.Uruguay) [2010] ICJ Report 14; Dispute Concerning the Southern Blue Fin Tuna between Australia and Japan and between New Zealand and Japan,Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility,4 August 2000.在國(guó)際投資法范圍內(nèi),其他國(guó)際義務(wù)通常表現(xiàn)為東道國(guó)采取的監(jiān)管行為,可能對(duì)投資有消極影響。有時(shí)投資者主張國(guó)家應(yīng)承擔(dān)人權(quán)法和環(huán)境法責(zé)任,①Spyridon Roussalis v.Romania,ICSID Case No.ARB/06/1,Final Award,7 December 2011; E.De Brabandere, Human Rights Considerations in International Investment Arbitration, in M.Fitzmaurice & P.Merkouris (eds.),The Interpretation and Application of the European Convention on Human Rights: Legal and Practical Implications 183 (Brill 2012); U.Kriebaum, Foreign Investments and Human Rights: The Actors and Their Different Roles, 10 Transnational Dispute Management 1 (2013); Peter A.Allard (Canada) v.The Government of Barbados,(Pending) PCA Case No.2012-6,www.pcacases.com/web/veiw/112,accessed on 5 May 2016; J.E.Venuales, Foreign Investment and the Environment:An Ambiguous Relationship, 80 British Yearbook of International Law 244,255 (2009).而這些情形不是本文的關(guān)注對(duì)象。
更常見(jiàn)的是,為實(shí)現(xiàn)公共政策目標(biāo),如保護(hù)環(huán)境和基本人權(quán),所采取的監(jiān)管措施常常被認(rèn)定為違反BITs對(duì)外國(guó)投資者的保護(hù)。
有學(xué)者正確地指出,“監(jiān)管凍結(jié)”會(huì)束縛東道國(guó),損害其保障基本人權(quán)和更加普遍的人民發(fā)展權(quán)的能力。監(jiān)管凍結(jié)還會(huì)妨礙國(guó)家履行諸如氣候變化、保護(hù)海洋生物和更廣泛的可持續(xù)發(fā)展目標(biāo)的環(huán)境法義務(wù)。②L.Zarsky, From Regulatory Chill to Deep Freeze, 6 International Environmental Agreements 395 (2006); J.Kammerhofer, The Theory of Norm Conflict Solutions in International Investment Law, in M.C.Segger & Others (eds.),Sustainable Development in World Investment Law 81 (2011); J.Wouters & N.Hachez, When Rules and Values Collide: How Can a Balance Application of Investor Protection Provision and Human Rights Be Ensured?, 3 Human Rights and International Legal Discourse 301 (2009).
自然資源永久主權(quán)原則確立的公共目標(biāo)比如逐漸實(shí)現(xiàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì)權(quán)利和保護(hù)其他基本人權(quán),可以在多大程度上融入投資法?③很多人權(quán)文件規(guī)定了國(guó)家以立法或其他監(jiān)管行為方式積極行動(dòng)的義務(wù)。由此很多人權(quán)解釋機(jī)關(guān)堅(jiān)持認(rèn)為,人權(quán)義務(wù)優(yōu)先于投資法義務(wù)。See for eg.,Sowhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v.Paraguay,IACHR (Judgment on Merits,Reparations and Costs),29 March 2006; CESCR,Concluding Observations: Azerbaijan,22 December 1997; UN,Doc.E/C.12/1/Add.20; CESCR,Concluding Observations: Colombia,7 June 2010; UN,Doc.E/C.12/COL/CO/5.
最新實(shí)踐表明,仲裁裁決④MTD Equity S.D.N.B.H.D.& Others v.The Republic of Chile,ICSID ARB/01/7,Award (25 May 2004); LG & E Energy Corp.and Others v.The Argentine Republic,ICSID ARB/02/1,3 October 2006; Tecmed S.A.v.The United Mexican States,ICSID ARB (AF)/00/2,29 May 2003; Azurix Corp.v.The Argentine Republic,ICSID ARB/01/12,14 July 2006.開(kāi)始追隨歐洲人權(quán)法院的一貫實(shí)踐,運(yùn)用“比例原則”方法轉(zhuǎn)向協(xié)調(diào)不同政策目標(biāo)。①I(mǎi)ndirect Expropriation and the Right to Regulate: Revisiting Proportionality Analysis and the Standard of Review in Investor-State Arbitration, 15 Journal of International Economic Law 223 (2012); A.S.Sweet, Investor State Arbitration: Proportionality’s New Frontier, 4 Law and Ethics of Human Rights 47 (2010); W.W.Burke-White & A.V.Staden, Private Litigation in a Public Law Sphere: The Standard of Review in Investor-State Arbitrations, 35 Yale Journal of International Law 283 (2010); X.Han, The Application of the Principle of Proportionality in Tecmed v.Mexico, 6 Chinese Journal of International Law 635 (2007).
盡管存在協(xié)調(diào)與投資者相關(guān)的不同義務(wù)的趨勢(shì),對(duì)這些“非投資關(guān)切”的承認(rèn)缺乏一致性,導(dǎo)致國(guó)家采取外交行動(dòng)。
晚近國(guó)家條約實(shí)踐表明,談判者借助例外條款的具體規(guī)定來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)公共目的。
為確定投資法與其他國(guó)際公法部門(mén)的融合,需要分析下述投資保護(hù)機(jī)制及其公共目標(biāo)例外范圍。
現(xiàn)已廣為接受的一項(xiàng)原則是,政府制定的文本原則上必須解釋為產(chǎn)生并且有意產(chǎn)生與現(xiàn)行法相符的效果,而非違反現(xiàn)行法。②Rights of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v.India) (Preliminary Objections) [1957] ICJ Report 125,142; 奧本海認(rèn)為,甚至與第三方的條約也應(yīng)考慮在內(nèi),以確定條約背景。R.Jenning & A.Watts (eds.),Oppenheim’s International Law 1275(Oxford University Press 2008) .
盡管此種對(duì)規(guī)則一致性的理解貌似可靠的解釋規(guī)則,它卻無(wú)力解決運(yùn)行于不同法律部門(mén)的監(jiān)管措施與投資保護(hù)之間的明顯沖突。③V.Prislan, Non-Investment Obligations in Investment Treaty Arbitration-Towards a Greater Role for States?, in F.Baetens (ed.),Investment Law within International Law:An Integrationist Perspective 450,474 (Cambridge University Press 2013).
非投資關(guān)切可能通過(guò)擴(kuò)大國(guó)際法和國(guó)內(nèi)法相關(guān)規(guī)則的評(píng)價(jià)范圍來(lái)解決。在僅有權(quán)“解釋和適用條約”的投資仲裁庭面前,如何作出此種嘗試便有必要加以考察。
“保護(hù)傘條款”④常見(jiàn)的其他指稱(chēng)包括“鏡像條款”、“有約必守條款”和“遵守承諾條款”。顯著擴(kuò)大投資者—國(guó)家仲裁的管轄權(quán),其解釋導(dǎo)致學(xué)者和仲裁員對(duì)其范圍、適用和一般解釋產(chǎn)生激烈爭(zhēng)論。⑤J.Paullson, Arbitration without Privity, 10 ICSID Review: Foreign Investment Law Journal 232 (1995).
“保護(hù)傘條款”可追溯到Elihu Lauterpacht在1954年違反英伊石油公司特許權(quán)協(xié)定案中的法律意見(jiàn)。①A.C.Sinclair, The Origins of the Umbrella Clause in International Law of Investment Protection, 20 Arbitration International 411,412 (2004).“保護(hù)傘條款”旨在創(chuàng)立遵守國(guó)內(nèi)法下的合同義務(wù)的條約義務(wù),根據(jù)合同適用法確定的合同義務(wù)的違反將導(dǎo)致違反條約并產(chǎn)生國(guó)際責(zé)任。②R.Dolzer & C.Schreur,Principles of International Investment Law 166 (Oxford University Press 2012).
確定違反合同的請(qǐng)求總是要依據(jù)合同的適用法,通常是東道國(guó)法律。類(lèi)似的適用法條款存在于2000 多個(gè)BITs 中,包括1959年德國(guó)與巴基斯坦簽訂的第一個(gè)BIT、《能源憲章條約》以及英國(guó)、荷蘭、德國(guó)和瑞士簽訂的多數(shù)BITs。③K.Yannaca-Small,Interpretation of the Umbrella Clause in Investment Agreements,OECD Working Papers on International Investment 2006/03,https://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investment-policy/WP-2006_3.pdf,accessed on 26 September 2018.例如《能源憲章條約》第10條第1款規(guī)定:“各締約國(guó)應(yīng)遵守與其他締約國(guó)投資者或其投資約定的義務(wù)。”由此,國(guó)家承擔(dān)了國(guó)際義務(wù),保證依據(jù)投資合同進(jìn)行投資保護(hù),如違約則導(dǎo)致國(guó)際責(zé)任。在強(qiáng)調(diào)投資者—國(guó)家間仲裁是混合的爭(zhēng)端解決制度時(shí),這是一個(gè)關(guān)鍵因素。④J.W.Sylacuse,The Law of Investment 299 (Oxford University Press 2015); E.De Brabandere,Investment Treaty Arbitration as Public International Law: Procedural Aspects and Implications 124 (Cambridge University Press 2016).
Raul Pereira de Souza Fleur 主張,保護(hù)傘條款的主要問(wèn)題是難以確定其能否充當(dāng)將合同請(qǐng)求上升至投資條約保護(hù)的橋梁。保護(hù)傘條款適用的困難在于:(1)合同請(qǐng)求和條約請(qǐng)求的區(qū)別;(2)違反合同的效果源自國(guó)家主權(quán)行使的要求;(3)保護(hù)傘條款是否取代公法合同中的選擇法院條款。⑤Raul Pereira de Souza Fleury,Closing the Umbrella: A Dark Future for Umbrella Clauses?,(FERRERE Abogados)/October 13,2017,http://arbitrationblog.kluwerarbitration.com/2017/10/13/closing-umbrella-dark-future-umbrella-clauses/.
通過(guò)SGS 分別訴巴基斯坦(ARB/01/13)、菲律賓(ARB/02/6)和巴拉圭(ARB/07/29)的三個(gè)案件,Raul Pereira de Souza Fleury 清晰說(shuō)明“不一致”是BITs 保護(hù)傘條款面臨的一個(gè)挑戰(zhàn)。三個(gè)案件事實(shí)類(lèi)似,都涉及違反裝船前檢驗(yàn)的服務(wù)合同,BITs有用語(yǔ)相同的保護(hù)傘條款,但各仲裁庭解釋不同。
在SGS 訴巴基斯坦案中,仲裁庭認(rèn)定,鑒于“有效的選擇法院條款”,沒(méi)有必要把合同請(qǐng)求上升到條約請(qǐng)求。
一年后的SGS 訴菲律賓案中,仲裁庭認(rèn)定保護(hù)傘條款“是東道國(guó)對(duì)外國(guó)投資者作出保證,履行東道國(guó)在其國(guó)內(nèi)法下針對(duì)特定投資承擔(dān)的義務(wù)”。但仲裁庭中止程序,等待菲律賓法院就政府對(duì)SGS的金錢(qián)債務(wù)作出判決。
在SGS訴巴拉圭案中,仲裁庭認(rèn)定保護(hù)傘條款中“承諾”一詞的通常含義包括合同義務(wù),將合同排除在保護(hù)傘條款“承諾”之外缺乏依據(jù)。①Raul Pereira de Souza Fleury,Closing the Umbrella: A Dark Future for Umbrella Clauses?,(FERRERE Abogados)/October 13,2017,http://arbitrationblog.kluwerarbitration.com/201 7/10/13/closing-umbrella-dark-future-umbrella-clauses,accessed on 15 August 2018.
不過(guò),投資者—國(guó)家間的仲裁實(shí)踐經(jīng)歷了如下轉(zhuǎn)變:從最初承認(rèn)通常應(yīng)適用國(guó)內(nèi)法,②Klockner Industrie-Anlagan GmnH & Others v.United Republic of Cameroon and Socite Camerounaise des Engrais,ICSID Case No.ARB/81/2,Decision on Annulment,3 May 1985; Amco Asian Corporation & Other v.Republic of Indonesia,ICSID Case No.ARB 81/1,Decision on Annulment,16 May 1986.到完全忽視國(guó)內(nèi)法,即使仲裁條款賦予國(guó)內(nèi)法排他適用。③Southern Pacific Properties (Middle East) Limited v.Arab Republic of Egypt ICSID ARB/84/3,Award,20 May 1992;“An island of discovery”,See J.Paullson, Arbitration without Privity, 10 ICSID Review: Foreign Investment Law Journal 232 (1995).在國(guó)家除了通過(guò)國(guó)內(nèi)法實(shí)施監(jiān)管之外別無(wú)他法的情形下,適用法條款解釋的變化加劇了對(duì)國(guó)家監(jiān)管需要的普遍忽視。由此產(chǎn)生一個(gè)怪異現(xiàn)象:投資者的訴請(qǐng)?jiān)趪?guó)內(nèi)法中由于監(jiān)管需要必然失敗,而仲裁庭適用病態(tài)和無(wú)視國(guó)內(nèi)法的國(guó)際法卻可能使其勝訴。④A.Kullick,Global Public Interest in International Investment Law 53 (Cambridge University Press 2012).
新的解釋可能完全無(wú)視BITs 義務(wù)以外的其他義務(wù)。因此可以認(rèn)為,保護(hù)傘條款使得東道國(guó)擔(dān)憂(yōu)適用國(guó)際法將剝奪其主觀政策考慮的空間。因此,當(dāng)前BITs談判出現(xiàn)一種值得注意的變化:曾經(jīng)的支持者在新的BIT 范本中不再試圖保留此類(lèi)條款。例如,2008年德國(guó)BIT 范本和2015年荷蘭BIT 范本均排除了保護(hù)傘條款。
盡管含有保護(hù)傘條款的BITs 還很多,但全球趨勢(shì)是新一代BIT 排除“保護(hù)傘條款”,降低或消除合同請(qǐng)求上升到條約請(qǐng)求的危險(xiǎn)。
如上所述,對(duì)于國(guó)家來(lái)說(shuō),BITs是將財(cái)產(chǎn)保護(hù)的習(xí)慣國(guó)際法法典化的舉措,因此鞏固了關(guān)于保護(hù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的現(xiàn)行法。⑤A.Kullick,Global Public Interest in International Investment Law 46 (Cambridge University Press 2012).
大量BITs 所規(guī)定的保護(hù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)條款使用了模糊用語(yǔ),給仲裁員解釋留下很大空間。人權(quán)判例法過(guò)去(可能現(xiàn)在)也是如此。
人權(quán)判例法和投資條約的此種相似性導(dǎo)致解釋方法的重合,考慮到它們都試圖平衡私人利益和國(guó)家公共利益,這似乎是必要的。①B.Simma, Foreign Investment Arbitration: A Place for Human Rights?, 60 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 573,584 (2011); C.Henckels, Balancing Investment Protection and the Public Interest: The Role of the Standard of Review and the Importance of Deference in Investor-State Arbitration, 16 Journal of International Economic Law 197 (2013).因此,歐洲人權(quán)法院的“三步法”,即法律規(guī)定、合法目的和必要措施,對(duì)投資仲裁庭有重大影響。②Occidental Petroleam Corporation v.The Republic of Ecuadar,ICSID ARB/06/11,Award,5 October 2012.
另一方面,美國(guó)最高法院的Chevron③Chevron U.S.A.,Inc.v.Natural Resources Defense Council,Inc.,(1984) 467 U.S.837.和Penn Central④Penn Central Transportation Co.v.New York City,(1978) 438 U.S.104.判決啟示了裁決理由和后來(lái)協(xié)議的用語(yǔ)。因此任何文件的解釋必須符合兩個(gè)廣泛的方法⑤兩個(gè)廣泛方法是原始意圖法和演變含義法。國(guó)際法院使用了兩種方法,但最近似乎傾向于演變法。See,Eirik Bjorge,The Evolutionary Intepretation of Treaties (Oxford University Press 2014).B.Simma, Foreign Investment Arbitration: A Place for Human Rights?, 60 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 573,583 (2011); See for eg.,Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970),Advisory Opinion,[1971] ICJ Report 16,28; T.O.Elias, The Doctrine of Intertemporal Law, American Journal of International Law 285 (1980).,根據(jù)《維也納條約法公約》規(guī)定的條約解釋的習(xí)慣規(guī)則澄清用語(yǔ)的通常含義。
可以認(rèn)為,由于BITs 采用寬泛和開(kāi)放的用語(yǔ),投資仲裁庭更多地依賴(lài)迄今僅服務(wù)于投資者利益的演變解釋方法。但晚近的條約仲裁表現(xiàn)出不同的方法,傾向于協(xié)調(diào)國(guó)家的非投資關(guān)切。
公平公正待遇和間接征收因其更多介入國(guó)家監(jiān)管行為而成為兩個(gè)最具關(guān)聯(lián)性的保護(hù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),并引起很大爭(zhēng)議。
即使對(duì)國(guó)民待遇有共識(shí),多數(shù)意見(jiàn)是習(xí)慣法規(guī)定了若干基本權(quán)利作為國(guó)際最低標(biāo)準(zhǔn),國(guó)家必須將其賦予外國(guó)人,并獨(dú)立于國(guó)家對(duì)本國(guó)公民的待遇。
仲裁庭承認(rèn)BITs 允許國(guó)家擁有一定的監(jiān)管行為空間,其采取的方法包括考慮警察權(quán)、比例原則、裁量余地、謙抑余地,它們都承認(rèn)國(guó)家保留有相當(dāng)?shù)膶?shí)施監(jiān)管行為的裁量權(quán)。①W.Burke-White & A.V.Staden, Private Litigation in a Public Law Sphere: The Standard of Review in Investor-State Arbitrations, 35 Yale Journal of International Law 283,285 (2010); C.Foster,Arbitration,at 528.
即使多數(shù)仲裁裁決承認(rèn)監(jiān)管空間,不同方法仍導(dǎo)致不同結(jié)果。②J.Arato, The Margin of Appreciation in International Investment Law, 54 Virginia Journal of International Law 545,551 (2014).
關(guān)于公平公正待遇,Tecmed③Tecmed S.A.v.The United Mexican States,ICSID Case No.ARB (AF)/00/2,29 May 2003.仲裁庭在承認(rèn)國(guó)家具有行使監(jiān)管權(quán)的裁量權(quán)的同時(shí),設(shè)置了一個(gè)高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。要求絕對(duì)透明和絕無(wú)任何含糊以利于投資者事先安排投資,這看起來(lái)遠(yuǎn)超Neer案④LFH Neer and Pauline Neer (USA) v.United Mexican States (1926),4 RIAA 60.確立的習(xí)慣國(guó)際法標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。
另一方面,最近的Frontier Petroleum案⑤Frontier Petroleum Services.Ltd.v.Czech Republic,UNCITRAL,Final Award,12 November 2010,para.527.、Electrabel案⑥Electrabel S.A.v.Republic of Hungary,ICSID ARB/07/19,Decision on Jurisdiction,Applicable Law and Liability,30 November 2012.和 Glamis Gold案⑦Glamis Gold Ltd.v.United States of America,UNCITRAL Arbitration,Award,8 June 2009.采用了更寬容的比例原則方法,依據(jù)善意和合理分析。
另外,Saluka 案⑧Saluka Investments BV (The Netherlands) v.Czech Republic,UNCITRAL,Partial Award,17 March 2006.和 Mecula⑨Micula v.Romania,ICSID Case No.ARB/05/20,Decision on Jurisdiction and Admissibility,24 September 2008.案仲裁庭提高門(mén)檻,認(rèn)定需要有力證據(jù)證明行政行為導(dǎo)致欺詐或?qū)嵸|(zhì)性錯(cuò)誤。
塑造公平公正待遇的一個(gè)重要因素是最小限制原理,即國(guó)家有義務(wù)基于公平精神,以對(duì)投資造成最小損害的方式實(shí)施立法政策目標(biāo)。⑩S.D.Myers Inc.v.Government of Canada,UNCITRAL,Partial Award,13 November 2000,at 255.考察是否有其他措施替代已采取的措施。仲裁庭在阿根廷危機(jī)案件中就公平公正待遇作出裁決時(shí)也采用類(lèi)似分析。 AWG v.Argentina,ICSID Case No.ARB/03/19,Decision on Liability,30 July 2010,para.215; InterAgua Servicios Integrales del Agua S.A.v.Argentina,ICSID ARB/03/17,Decision on Liability,30 July 2010.
但是,在具體落實(shí)這個(gè)方法時(shí),仲裁庭尊重國(guó)家的政策實(shí)施,只在國(guó)家政策不符合其他合理性或任意性的要求時(shí)進(jìn)行干預(yù)。①C.Henckels,Proportionality and the Standard of Review in Fair and Equitable Treatment Claims: Balancing Stability and Consistency with the Public Interest,26 June 2012,http://www.ssrn.com/link/SIEL-2012-Singapore-Conference.html,accessed on 15 May 2018.A.T.Katselas, Do Investment Treaties Prescribe a Deferential Standard of Review,34 Michigan Journal of International Law 87,98 (2012).
對(duì)不同裁決的分析結(jié)論是公平公正待遇遠(yuǎn)超習(xí)慣國(guó)際法標(biāo)準(zhǔn),納入了公法性質(zhì)的人權(quán)法的技術(shù)。
這樣,在處理此類(lèi)公法問(wèn)題時(shí)給予國(guó)家的裁量余地似乎與私人商事仲裁的當(dāng)事人平等原則相沖突。②S.W.Schill, Deference in Investment Treaty Arbitration: Reconceptualizing the Standard of Review, 3 Journal of International Dispute Settlement 577,577 (2012).除了東道國(guó)的關(guān)切,仲裁庭處理國(guó)家合法政策利益的經(jīng)驗(yàn)似乎提出關(guān)于仲裁庭職能及其審查范圍的根本問(wèn)題。
同樣對(duì)于征收,Tecmed 仲裁庭將謙抑余地界定為“警察權(quán)”,認(rèn)定“國(guó)家在警察權(quán)范圍內(nèi)行使主權(quán)權(quán)力的原則可能經(jīng)濟(jì)上損害受其管理者權(quán)力約束的人,而不賦予他們獲得即便無(wú)爭(zhēng)議的補(bǔ)償?shù)臋?quán)利。”
盡管偏好同樣的比例原則和謙抑,征收義務(wù)通常包括更加具體復(fù)雜的公共政策、非歧視和正當(dāng)程序要求,才能不導(dǎo)致補(bǔ)償請(qǐng)求。③Methanex Corporation v.United States of America,UNCITRAL (NAFTA) Award,3 August 2005,para.278; S.A.Spears,Making Way (2011),at 276.但一些仲裁庭采取不同方法,在責(zé)任認(rèn)定時(shí)將義務(wù)的公法性質(zhì)降為無(wú)關(guān)因素。④Metalcad Corporation v.Mexico,ICSID Case No.ARB (AF)/97/1,Award,30 August 2000,para.103; Azurix Corp.v.The Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/01/12,14 July 2006,para.310; Compana del Desarrollo de Santa Elena SA v.Costa Rica ICSID Case No.ARB (AF)/00/01,Award,17 February 2000,para.72.
因此,關(guān)于間接征收的要求在不同條約中各異,但多數(shù)國(guó)家實(shí)踐可以視為允許為公共目的征收。此種一般例外根據(jù)系統(tǒng)性解釋方法⑤系統(tǒng)性解釋方法指的是1969年《維也納條約法公約》第31(3)(c)條規(guī)定的解釋方法。V.Prislan, Non-Investment Obligations in Investment Treaty Arbitration-Towards a Greater Role for States?,in F.Baetens (ed.),Investment Law within International Law:An Integrationist Perspective 450 (Cambridge University Press 2013); See,Saluka Investments BV (The Netherlands) v.Czech Republic,UNCITRAL,Partial Award,17 March 2006,para.254; Veteran Petroleum Ltd.(Cyprus) v.Russian Federation and Hulley Enterprises Ltd.(Cyprus) v.Russian Federation,UNCITRAL,Interim Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility,30 November 2009,para.309.解釋為允許國(guó)家從事監(jiān)管行為保障人權(quán)和環(huán)境法。
所有涉及阿根廷危機(jī)的判例解釋了阿根廷參加的BITs 的相關(guān)例外條款。盡管條約文本不同,裁決結(jié)果有差異,它們?nèi)杂兄诶斫饫鈼l款判例。
案件事實(shí)涉及阿根廷政府在金融危機(jī)中采取的監(jiān)管措施,例如凍結(jié)銀行賬戶(hù)、限制進(jìn)口和外匯匯出。阿根廷采取了兩個(gè)抗辯策略,分別依據(jù)BIT 的根本安全利益例外和國(guó)際習(xí)慣法的必要性抗辯。①B.Choudhury, Exception Provisions as Gateway to Incorporating Human Rights Issues into International Investment Agreements, 49 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 670,698 (2011).
CMS案②CMS Gas Transmission Co.v.Argentina,ICSID Case No.ARB/ 01/8,Award,12 May 2005,para.359.、Sempra案③Sempra Energy International v.Argentina,ICSID ARB/02/16,Award,28 September,2007,para.168.和Enron案④Enron Corp.Ponderosa Asset,L.P.v.Argentina,ICSID Case No.ARB/01/3,Award,22 May 2007,para.359.仲裁庭認(rèn)定相關(guān)情勢(shì)不構(gòu)成例外,原因之一是必要性抗辯不免除責(zé)任,并且存在其他更加有利于投資且能達(dá)成類(lèi)似結(jié)果的措施。
另一方面,LG & E 案⑤LG & E Energy Corp.and Others v.The Argentine Republic,ICSID Case No.ARB/02/1,3 October 2006,para.267.和Continental Casualty 案⑥Continental Casualty Co.v.Argentina,ICSID Case No.ARB/03/9,Award,5 September 2008,para.303.裁決完全免除阿根廷責(zé)任,認(rèn)為根本安全利益條款將監(jiān)管行為完全排除在BIT的保護(hù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)之外。⑦關(guān)于起訴阿根廷各案的深入分析,see generally,J.E.Alvarez & K.Khamsi,The Argentine Crisis and Foreign Investors: A Glimpse into the Heart of the Investment Regime, in K.P.Sauvant (ed.),Yearbook of International Investment Law and Policy 2008-2009 379 (Oxford University Press 2008).關(guān)于近期司法對(duì)這些案件影響的討論,see also,CC/Devas (Maurities) Ltd.and Ors.v.The Republic of India,PCA Case No.2013-09,25 July 2016,paras.212-256.
最終,上述裁決撤銷(xiāo)委員會(huì)認(rèn)同后者的裁決,認(rèn)為必要性抗辯是絕對(duì)抗辯。委員會(huì)裁定,根本安全利益條款明確將行為排除在條約審查范圍之外,被質(zhì)疑的裁決構(gòu)成明顯越權(quán),從而重構(gòu)了對(duì)尊重國(guó)家行為的信任。
如前一部分所述,仲裁庭采取多種解釋技術(shù),降低3000 多個(gè)BITs 的全面的待遇標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的影響。盡管這些從其他制度借鑒來(lái)的技術(shù)有助于國(guó)家抗辯不斷質(zhì)疑主權(quán)監(jiān)管行為的訴請(qǐng),但沒(méi)有任何確定性。
須知BIT 的一個(gè)根本目的是在談判達(dá)成的文本基礎(chǔ)上吸引外資,文本規(guī)定了東道國(guó)和投資者之間的法律關(guān)系框架。BIT 支持者強(qiáng)調(diào)的核心要素是穩(wěn)定的法律制度,強(qiáng)調(diào)確定性,以降低非商業(yè)或政治風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。
考察各仲裁庭的不一致裁決,不能清楚地確定哪一種解釋是主流做法。這意味著,沒(méi)有可明顯確定的規(guī)則或做法能導(dǎo)致形成特定的“確定判例”。
最近仲裁員Born 在Philip Morris 訴烏拉圭案①Phillip Morris Brands Sarl and Others v.Uruguay,ICSID Case No.ARB/10/7,2 July 2016,Dissenting Opinion of Arbitrator Born,paras.138,181-191.裁決反對(duì)意見(jiàn)中提到這個(gè)問(wèn)題。他認(rèn)為裁量余地原則(歐洲人權(quán)法院常用)不宜在BIT案件適用,他支持采取更常用的比例原則。
只要投資仲裁是當(dāng)事人選擇仲裁員,裁決不同是必然的,國(guó)際法其他部門(mén)也是如此。因此為促進(jìn)投資者和東道國(guó)關(guān)系的穩(wěn)定,嚴(yán)格起草的例外條款似乎比任何時(shí)候都具有現(xiàn)實(shí)緊迫性。
眾所周知,所有美國(guó)第一代BIT 都規(guī)定國(guó)家安全例外作為一般例外。②W.W.Burke-White & A.Von Staden, Investment Protection in Extraordinary Times: The Interpretation and Application of Non-Precluded Measures Provisions in Bilateral Investment Treaties, 48 Virginia Journal of International Law 307,384 (2008); J.E.Alvarez, Political Protectionism and United States International Investment Obligations in Conflict: The Hazards of Exon-Florio, 30 Virginia Journal of International Law 1 (1989); J.E.Pattison, The United States-Egypt Bilateral Investment Treaty: A Prototype for Future Negotiations, 16 Cornell International Law Journal 305 (1983).國(guó)家安全一般不得侵犯,不受仲裁庭或法院裁判,作為國(guó)家的核心權(quán)力義務(wù),絕對(duì)主權(quán)容不得妥協(xié)。
但是,可以對(duì)援引國(guó)家安全抗辯管轄權(quán)的權(quán)利施加一定限制,最重要的是,其措施是否事實(shí)上侵犯國(guó)家安全考慮,不應(yīng)僅由國(guó)家決定。換句話(huà)說(shuō),仲裁庭有權(quán)裁判,其是善意地履行義務(wù)還是盜用該權(quán)力之名的措施。
國(guó)際法院在這方面的做法具有一致性,為國(guó)家提供充分余地解釋“根本安全”,但在Nicaragua 案③Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Merits) [1986] ICJ Report 14,141.強(qiáng)調(diào)“必要”一詞默示需要“有力聯(lián)系”,才能使行為受到條款保護(hù)??梢哉J(rèn)為,國(guó)際法院在1956 美國(guó)—尼加拉瓜友好通商航海條約案和1955 美國(guó)—伊朗友好、經(jīng)濟(jì)關(guān)系和領(lǐng)事權(quán)利條約案①Oil Platforms (Merits) [2003] ICJ Report 161,183.中兩次裁判根本安全條款的適用,對(duì)兩個(gè)條約的處理表明其相對(duì)寬泛但有限制地解釋了條款要求。
Lauterpacht法官在Norwegian Loans案②Case of Certain Norwegian Loans (Merits) [1957] ICJ Report 9,34.和Interhandel案③Interhandel Case [1959] ICJ Report 6,95.中堅(jiān)持認(rèn)為,自判斷條款與法院判定自己管轄權(quán)相互沖突,因此適用自判斷條款違反《國(guó)際法院規(guī)約》。
能否協(xié)調(diào)采用自判斷用詞的條款與多數(shù)仲裁庭裁判自身管轄權(quán)的權(quán)力,尚無(wú)定論。
其他例外旨在保護(hù)其他公共政策目標(biāo),如環(huán)境、公共衛(wèi)生、人權(quán)和可耗竭的自然資源,通常不是自判斷的,盡管這取決于條款的用語(yǔ)。這些例外條款通常作為排除條款或不排除措施條款被援引,規(guī)定了判斷其是否適用的某些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。
對(duì)國(guó)家政策空間的侵蝕在國(guó)際貿(mào)易規(guī)制中也存在。事實(shí)上,在這一領(lǐng)域,國(guó)家間關(guān)系發(fā)展到形成多邊條約的共識(shí),設(shè)立了國(guó)際組織(世界貿(mào)易組織),處理前述問(wèn)題的方式有著微妙差別。
《關(guān)稅和貿(mào)易總協(xié)定》第20 條調(diào)整國(guó)際貨物貿(mào)易,明確列舉了若干可以采取的與條約規(guī)定不符但不視為違約的措施。這些措施是條約標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的例外。④General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade,15 April 1994,33 ILM 1153.該條不僅規(guī)定所采取的措施應(yīng)是非歧視的,而且規(guī)定該措施不得視為對(duì)國(guó)際貿(mào)易的變相限制。
仲裁庭將美國(guó)—阿根廷BIT第11條的必要性要求等同于《國(guó)家對(duì)國(guó)際不法行為的責(zé)任條款》第25 條規(guī)定的國(guó)際習(xí)慣法⑤Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts,UNGA,Res.56/83,12 December 2001.,與此不同的是,WTO 法庭采用了不同方法,反對(duì)高門(mén)檻。如泰國(guó)香煙案⑥Panel Report,Thailand-Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes,para.75,WT/DS10/R,5 October 1990; See also,W.W.Burke-White & A.V.Staden, Private Litigation in a Public Law Sphere: The Standard of Review in Investor-State Arbitrations, 35 Yale Journal of International Law 283,347 (2010); See for a detailed study,M.J.Trebilcok & R.Howse,The Regulation of International Trade 565 (Oxford University Press 2005).表述的WTO 判例認(rèn)為,應(yīng)適用最小限制標(biāo)準(zhǔn)以解釋GATT 第20 條用語(yǔ)。根據(jù)該標(biāo)準(zhǔn),只有不存在與協(xié)定相符的可替代措施來(lái)保護(hù)GATT 第20 條的目標(biāo)時(shí),才允許對(duì)貨物貿(mào)易的限制。WTO 的做法看起來(lái)是公正的,因?yàn)樗胶饬讼嚓P(guān)方和受影響者的利益。這一方法不僅保護(hù)了法庭的完整性,解決了Lauterpacht 法官的合法關(guān)切,而且在考察是否存在濫用或變相限制的同時(shí)賦予國(guó)家充分自由,以解決真正的政策考慮。
因此,GATT 第20 條之類(lèi)的條款或一般例外條款在晚近投資條約中盛行,加拿大在其所有條約中采取該條款,中國(guó)①China-New Zealand FTA,7 April 2008.、新加坡②Singapore-Jordan BIT,16 May 2004.See also Singapore-Japan New Age Economic Partnership (2003) and Korea-Singapore FTA (2005).、印度③India-Columbia FTA,10 November 2009.和歐盟④Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement,26 October 2016; Energy Charter Treaty,17 December 1994.也有此趨勢(shì)。
盡管該條款在國(guó)際貿(mào)易制度中獲得成功,一些學(xué)者反對(duì)將其適用于國(guó)際投資制度。他們主張,GATT 第20 條之類(lèi)的條款不宜直接適用于投資制度,因?yàn)闀?huì)降低習(xí)慣國(guó)際法的待遇例外。
一位反對(duì)GATT第20條例外條款適用的學(xué)者指出:
“比較習(xí)慣國(guó)際法抗辯和GATT 第20 條所涵蓋的措施,表明前者豁免只對(duì)應(yīng)后者的一部分。習(xí)慣國(guó)際法的例外限于維護(hù)公共秩序、安全、健康和道德,GATT第20條的列舉明顯更加廣泛并有區(qū)別?!雹軧.Legum & I.Petculescu, GATT Article XX and International Investment Law,in R.Echandi & P.Sauve (eds.),Prospects in International Investment Law and Policy 340,351 (Cambridge University Press 2013).
他還指出:“出于不同關(guān)切并以不同視角解決類(lèi)似關(guān)切的GATT 第20條可能不適應(yīng)投資條約的具體約束?!?/p>
其他學(xué)者指出:
“沒(méi)有必要援引例外條款,如果在初級(jí)義務(wù)的解釋中可以充分考慮合法目標(biāo)。這樣的解釋會(huì)違反條約解釋的有效原則?!雹轈.Levesque, The Inclusion of GATT Article XX Exceptions in IIAs: A Potentially Risky Policy, in R.Echandi & P.Sauve (eds.),Prospects in International Investment Law and Policy 363,367 (Cambridge University Press 2013).
Newcombe 認(rèn)為,⑦A.Newcombe,General Exceptions in International Investment Agreements,BIICL Eight Annual WTO Conference,13-14 May 2008,London,https://www.biicl.org/files/3866_andrew_newcombe.pdf,accessed on 1 August 2018.納入GATT 第20 條類(lèi)似條款可能起反作用,如果仲裁庭嚴(yán)格解釋此類(lèi)條款,甚至限制習(xí)慣國(guó)際法的已有抗辯。國(guó)際可持續(xù)發(fā)展學(xué)院的《可持續(xù)發(fā)展國(guó)際投資協(xié)定范本》未納入GATT第20條類(lèi)似條款,也提出類(lèi)似關(guān)切。①I(mǎi)nternational Institute for Sustainable Development,Model International Investment Agreement for Sustainable Development,https://iisd.org/pdf/2004/trade_model_inv.pdf,accessed on 1 August 2018.
盡管對(duì)外國(guó)投資法中的GATT第20條類(lèi)似條款有批評(píng),而批評(píng)主要指向仲裁庭對(duì)具體事實(shí)適用法律時(shí)解釋的裁量。如果通過(guò)起草適應(yīng)投資制度的專(zhuān)門(mén)條款來(lái)保護(hù)國(guó)家主權(quán)行使保留的政策目標(biāo),這些批評(píng)似乎可以避免。
本文回顧了國(guó)家從極端自然資源永久主權(quán)觀念到以BITs 形式(絕對(duì)地)出讓主權(quán)權(quán)力的(極端)轉(zhuǎn)變的國(guó)際法發(fā)展歷程。
一系列因素影響了國(guó)家的決定,其理由如上所述,表明BITs 訂立時(shí)即存在不平等和不公平。
本文表明,在為資本激烈競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的年代,國(guó)際投資法的產(chǎn)生和大量BITs 的簽訂給發(fā)展中國(guó)家利益談判留下很少空間甚至沒(méi)有留下空間。
由于BITs 許多條款較為寬泛且具有無(wú)所不包的范圍以及在投資者—國(guó)家仲裁中的解釋?zhuān)l(fā)展中國(guó)家很快受其影響。多數(shù)BITs 自始就不公平,且由于仲裁庭的不同解釋而適用不一致。
最近出現(xiàn)了一種趨勢(shì):一些發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家遭遇了投資者的申訴以及針對(duì)其行使主權(quán)職能時(shí)采取的監(jiān)管行為的負(fù)面裁決。首先是學(xué)界,之后是媒體和公眾對(duì)此趨勢(shì)反應(yīng)強(qiáng)烈,要求重新審視投資者—國(guó)家間仲裁制度。
不同仲裁庭采取解釋方法以限縮條款范圍,并探尋保留國(guó)家監(jiān)管空間的方法。
阿根廷經(jīng)“嘗試和驗(yàn)證”的是另一保留監(jiān)管空間的方法,該方法使用排除或例外條款,受到廣泛關(guān)注。實(shí)際上,美國(guó)、加拿大、印度BIT范本以及《跨太平洋伙伴關(guān)系協(xié)定》《全面經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易協(xié)定》已包括了范圍更廣、更加確定的條款。
一些投資協(xié)定也納入類(lèi)似于GATT第20條的例外條款。
盡管投資仲裁庭、國(guó)際法院和WTO專(zhuān)家組采取不同方法,利益平衡的關(guān)鍵是起草具體例外條款。
寬泛解釋待遇標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的時(shí)代促使國(guó)家通過(guò)起草更具體條款和謹(jǐn)慎談判來(lái)維護(hù)其監(jiān)管空間。BITs談判不僅是經(jīng)濟(jì)事務(wù),而且影響主權(quán)監(jiān)管的所有領(lǐng)域。國(guó)家必須考慮條款用語(yǔ),在有疑問(wèn)時(shí)寧可謹(jǐn)慎,加入措辭明確的例外條款,正如發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家所采用的保護(hù)其利益的方式一樣。
BITs必須平衡確定性和投資者保護(hù),同時(shí)為國(guó)家保留充分監(jiān)管空間以履行根本主權(quán)職能。
事實(shí)上,自然資源永久主權(quán)是國(guó)家為保留其一定主權(quán)空間發(fā)展出來(lái)的,以使其能夠根據(jù)國(guó)家政策目標(biāo)使用自然資源。
起初,發(fā)展中國(guó)家認(rèn)為征收和國(guó)有化會(huì)幫助他們實(shí)現(xiàn)政策目標(biāo),但很快導(dǎo)致它們孤立且無(wú)法獲得急需的外資。之后,發(fā)展中國(guó)家被誘使軟化其立場(chǎng),接受雙邊或區(qū)域談判的投資條約。
可以認(rèn)為,投資條約的寬泛解釋開(kāi)始影響國(guó)際法其他制度,將這稱(chēng)為惡性競(jìng)爭(zhēng)也不為過(guò),因?yàn)榕c投資保護(hù)義務(wù)相比,人權(quán)和環(huán)境權(quán)遭到無(wú)視。
事實(shí)上,當(dāng)發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家受到苛刻裁決限制其監(jiān)管空間時(shí),與發(fā)展中國(guó)家在聯(lián)合國(guó)初期提出自然資源永久主權(quán)時(shí)類(lèi)似的動(dòng)機(jī)得以重現(xiàn)。
在關(guān)于外國(guó)投資的國(guó)際法發(fā)展的這一關(guān)鍵節(jié)點(diǎn),有必要老調(diào)重彈,因?yàn)椴糠滞ㄟ^(guò)例外條款的適用,自然資源永久主權(quán)和國(guó)際投資法的新型關(guān)系正在構(gòu)建和調(diào)整!