辛 飛,蔡玉軍,鮑 冉,王 凱,陳思同,劉 陽,孫曉姣
(上海體育學(xué)院 體育教育訓(xùn)練學(xué)院,上海200438)
掌握 1~2項(xiàng)運(yùn)動(dòng)技能是國家對(duì)青少年的一項(xiàng)基本要求,也是學(xué)校體育的重要目標(biāo)之一,《關(guān)于加強(qiáng)青少年體育增強(qiáng)青少年體質(zhì)的意見》(中發(fā)〔2007〕7號(hào))、《強(qiáng)化學(xué)校體育促進(jìn)學(xué)生身心健康全面發(fā)展的意見》(國辦發(fā)〔2016〕27號(hào))、《“健康中國 2030”規(guī)劃綱要》及《國家教育事業(yè)發(fā)展“十三五”規(guī)劃》(國發(fā)〔2017〕4號(hào))等均有提及。我國體育教育理論研究者和實(shí)踐者歷來重視運(yùn)動(dòng)技能,教育部體衛(wèi)藝司司長王登峰(2017)就曾撰文強(qiáng)調(diào)過運(yùn)動(dòng)技能的重要性。運(yùn)動(dòng)技能(Motor Skill)是一系列動(dòng)作技能的整合,而基本動(dòng)作技能(Fundamental Movement Skills,FMS)作為發(fā)展運(yùn)動(dòng)技能的基礎(chǔ)(Clark et al.,2002b),尚未引起學(xué)界的足夠重視?;緞?dòng)作技能是指人體非自然發(fā)生的基礎(chǔ)運(yùn)動(dòng)學(xué)習(xí)模式(Basic Learnt Movement Patterns),它是進(jìn)行復(fù)雜身體活動(dòng)和體育活動(dòng)的基礎(chǔ),包括位移技能(Locomotor Skill,跑、跳等)、物體控制技能(Object Control Skill,拍球、接球等)和穩(wěn)定技能(Stability Skill,平衡、旋轉(zhuǎn)等)(Barnett et al.,2016)?;緞?dòng)作技能與兒童青少年的身體活動(dòng)(Holfelder et al.,2014; Logan et al.,2015)、肥胖(Henrique et al.,2016; O’Brien et al.,2016)、健康體適能(Cattuzzo et al.,2016)、社會(huì)及認(rèn)知能力(Leonard et al.,2014; Lubans et al.,2010)等健康發(fā)展方面有顯著的關(guān)系。兒童青少年基本動(dòng)作技能水平對(duì)提高體育教育質(zhì)量(Goodway et al.,2014)、促進(jìn)健康(Lubans et al.,2010)和全面發(fā)展(Hill,2010)等方面具有重要的意義。
跟蹤研究的證據(jù)表明,兒童青少年早期的基本動(dòng)作技能水平與后期的表現(xiàn)(Barnett et al.,2010; Dhondt et al.,2013;Lloyd et al.,2014)以及相關(guān)健康產(chǎn)出(Lloyd et al.,2014;Lubans et al.,2010)存在明顯的關(guān)系,兒童青少年在早期獲得并保持良好的基本動(dòng)作技能水平有助于未來運(yùn)動(dòng)技能的發(fā)展?;緞?dòng)作技能研究的理論——?jiǎng)幼靼l(fā)展理論(Motor Development)指出個(gè)體的基本動(dòng)作技能在嬰兒期就開始發(fā)展(Gallahue et al.,2012),較早進(jìn)行基本動(dòng)作技能發(fā)展的個(gè)體在后續(xù)的成長中能夠表現(xiàn)出更高的運(yùn)動(dòng)技能水平(Robinson et al.,2015; Stodden et al.,2008)以及較高的競(jìng)技能力水平(Lloyd et al.,2015)??梢?,對(duì)兒童青少年早期進(jìn)行基本動(dòng)作技能干預(yù)能夠帶來較為理想的結(jié)果。為此,國外學(xué)者展開了豐富的研究,并取得了一定的成果(Morgan et al.,2013)。其中,Morgan等(2013)指出,當(dāng)前基本動(dòng)作技能的干預(yù)研究能夠顯著提高兒童青少年的基本動(dòng)作水平。國內(nèi)現(xiàn)有的研究表明,功能性訓(xùn)練(雷園園 等,2018;周喆嘯 等,2016)、韻律性身體活動(dòng)(吳升扣 等,2015)和體操項(xiàng)目(查萍 等,2018)能夠有效提高幼兒的基本動(dòng)作技能技能水平。上述研究存在統(tǒng)計(jì)分析效力較低(雷園園等,2018; 吳升扣 等,2015; 查萍 等,2018; 周喆嘯 等,2016),未能對(duì)低年齡段(除 5、6歲外)幼兒進(jìn)行系統(tǒng)研究(吳升扣 等,2015; 周喆嘯 等,2016; Morgan et al.,2013)等不足。
盡管國外學(xué)者針對(duì)學(xué)齡兒童青少年的基本動(dòng)作技能干預(yù)進(jìn)行了梳理和分析(Morgan et al.,2013),但是針對(duì)幼兒的相關(guān)研究鮮見相對(duì)系統(tǒng)的科研證據(jù)。同時(shí),由于我國在這一領(lǐng)域處于“萌芽”階段(馬瑞 等,2017; 王政淞等,2017),一般為探索動(dòng)作技能對(duì)身體活動(dòng)和健康的促進(jìn)作用,考慮到基本動(dòng)作技能發(fā)展的規(guī)律和“延長效應(yīng)”,關(guān)于幼兒人群的基本動(dòng)作技能干預(yù)應(yīng)該得到足夠的重視。本研究旨在系統(tǒng)分析國外關(guān)于幼兒人群基本動(dòng)作技能干預(yù)研究的方法學(xué)特點(diǎn)和效果。
該系統(tǒng)綜述的實(shí)施流程和撰寫報(bào)告嚴(yán)格遵守 PRISMA(Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses)(Moher et al.,2015)。
對(duì) Web of Science,EBSCO,Science Direct,PubMed,Springer 5個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)庫進(jìn)行檢索,檢索截止日期為2017年12月 31日。檢索詞(式)包括 3組:1)人群:preschool*OR kindergarten OR early child* OR young child*;2)基本動(dòng)作技能:motor OR movement ORfundamental AND skill OR ability OR competence OR performance OR proficiency;3)干預(yù):interven* OR effect* OR influence OR impact。首先,使用布爾邏輯詞“AND”“OR”連接各檢索詞進(jìn)行計(jì)算機(jī)檢索。其次,對(duì)滿足檢索條件的文獻(xiàn)全文和參考文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行人工檢索,增補(bǔ)首輪檢索過程中漏檢的文獻(xiàn)。最后,對(duì)檢索到的綜述類文獻(xiàn)的參考文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行人工檢索,增補(bǔ)在前兩輪檢索過程中漏檢的文獻(xiàn)。
滿足以下條件的文章被納入本綜述:1)實(shí)驗(yàn)對(duì)象為學(xué)齡前兒童,平均年齡在 3~6歲之間;2)針對(duì)基本動(dòng)作技能進(jìn)行干預(yù),且干預(yù)時(shí)長超過4周;3)實(shí)驗(yàn)方法為隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)(Randomized Controlled Trial,RCT)或非隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)(Controlled Trial,CT)或準(zhǔn)實(shí)驗(yàn)(Quasi-Experiment,QE)設(shè)計(jì);4)干預(yù)實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)束后采用測(cè)評(píng)工具對(duì)基本動(dòng)作技能進(jìn)行測(cè)評(píng)。納入文獻(xiàn)根據(jù)干預(yù)實(shí)施者的情況分為 3類:1)教師主導(dǎo)(Teacher-Led,TL):由事先經(jīng)過培訓(xùn)的學(xué)前/日托工作人員實(shí)施;2)父母主導(dǎo)(Parent-Led,PL):父母對(duì)學(xué)齡前兒童進(jìn)行干預(yù);3)以兒童為中心(Child-Centered,CC):研究人員、運(yùn)動(dòng)生理學(xué)專家、教練或其他訓(xùn)練有素的體育工作人員直接對(duì)兒童進(jìn)行干預(yù)(Van Capelle et al.,2017)。
1)根據(jù)檢索到的文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)題排除非學(xué)齡前兒童(嬰兒,青少年,成人)以及非基本動(dòng)作技能干預(yù)的研究;2)排除對(duì)特殊疾病或存在健康問題兒童干預(yù)研究;3)排除全文或摘要中未報(bào)告詳細(xì)數(shù)據(jù)結(jié)果、綜述以及與主題無關(guān)的研究。計(jì)算機(jī)檢索時(shí)已經(jīng)限定英文期刊文章,學(xué)位論文、會(huì)議論文和其他語言類文章不在檢索范圍。
由 2位作者分別對(duì)文獻(xiàn)信息進(jìn)行提取,不一致的信息由第 3位作者根據(jù)文獻(xiàn)做出判斷。納入文獻(xiàn)的信息包括:第一作者,年份,國家,實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì)和樣本特征,干預(yù)模式,干預(yù)內(nèi)容,測(cè)評(píng)工具及指標(biāo),統(tǒng)計(jì)方法,干預(yù)結(jié)果。納入本研究的具體文獻(xiàn)信息如表1所示,表2是在表1的基礎(chǔ)上對(duì)各研究的特點(diǎn)進(jìn)行定量匯總的結(jié)果。
2位作者借助由 Cochrane工作小組制定的偏倚風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估工具分別對(duì)納入文獻(xiàn)的質(zhì)量進(jìn)行評(píng)價(jià),不一致的觀點(diǎn) 2人通過討論解決。使用隨機(jī)對(duì)照試驗(yàn)偏倚評(píng)估工具 2.0(Higgins et al.,2011)評(píng)價(jià)隨機(jī)對(duì)照試驗(yàn)研究的偏倚風(fēng)險(xiǎn),包含 7個(gè)條目;使用非隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)研究評(píng)估工具ROBINS-I(Sterne et al.,2016)評(píng)估非隨機(jī)對(duì)照試驗(yàn)和準(zhǔn)實(shí)驗(yàn)研究的偏倚風(fēng)險(xiǎn),包含 7個(gè)條目。使用科恩卡帕系數(shù)(Cohen's kappa)(Cohen,1968)報(bào)告評(píng)分者信度。
如圖 1所示,研究共檢索到 2 113篇文獻(xiàn),經(jīng)篩選后共納入9篇,根據(jù)納入文獻(xiàn)和相關(guān)綜述的參考文獻(xiàn)補(bǔ)充18篇,最終確定納入27篇。2003-2007、2008-2012和2013-2017年的發(fā)文量分別占總納入文獻(xiàn)的11%、22%和67%。來自北美洲和歐洲的研究分別占納入文獻(xiàn)的 44%和 37%,其中美國(Alhassan et al.,2012; Bellows et al.,2013; Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Hamilton et al.,2018; Martin et al.,2009;Robinson,2011,2016; Vidoni et al.,2014)占33%。希臘(Deli et al.,2006; Fotini et al.,2004; Tsapakidou et al.,2014;Zachopoulou et al.,2004)、澳大利亞(Jones et al.,2011; Piek et al.,2013; Veldman et al.,2017)、加拿大(Adamo et al.,2016;Froehlich et al.,2016; Wasenius et al.,2017)分別占 15%、11%和11%。除伊朗(Mostafavi et al.,2013)外,未發(fā)現(xiàn)其他亞洲國家的作者公開發(fā)表研究。
表1 納入文獻(xiàn)的干預(yù)特點(diǎn)Table 1 Intervention Characteristics of Included Studies
(續(xù)表1)
(續(xù)表1)
表2 納入文獻(xiàn)干預(yù)特點(diǎn)的歸納總結(jié)Table 2 Summaryof Intervention Characteristics of Included Studies
(續(xù)表2)
圖1 文獻(xiàn)檢索流程Figure 1. The Process of Articles Retrieve
納入研究的干預(yù)均在托兒所(Childcare Centre)或幼兒園(preschool, Kindergarten)中實(shí)施。59%的研究報(bào)告了樣本來源地區(qū),其中城市樣本(Adamo et al.,2016; Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Donath et al.,2015; Foulkes et al.,2017; Iivonen et al.,2011; Lemos et al.,2012; Piek et al.,2013; Robinson,2011;Rocha et al.,2016; Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Vidoni et al.,2014)占 44%(12項(xiàng)),農(nóng)村(Froehlich et al.,2016; Martin et al.,2009)占7%,城市和農(nóng)村混合樣本(Bellows et al.,2013;Bonvin et al.,2013)占7%。根據(jù)社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)地位情況,37%的研究(Alhassan et al.,2012; Bellows et al.,2013; Brian et al.,2017a; Foulkes et al.,2017; Hamilton et al.,2018; Martin et al.,2009; Piek et al.,2013; Robinson,2011,2016; Veldman et al.,2017)選取的樣本來自低收入家庭兒童。樣本平均年齡為 3~4 歲(Bonvin et al.,2013; Wasenius et al.,2017)、4~5歲(Adamo et al.,2016; Alhassan et al.,2012; Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Donath et al.,2015; Fotini etal.,2004; Foulkes et al.,2017; Froehlich et al.,2016; Hamilton et al.,2018; Iivonen et al.,2011; Jones et al.,2011; Robinson,2011,2016; Rocha et al.,2016; Veldman et al.,2017)、5~6歲(Deli et al.,2006; Lemos et al.,2012; Martin et al.,2009; Piek et al.,2013; Salaj et al.,2016;Zachopoulou et al.,2004)的研究所占比例分別為7%、56%、22%。在性別方面,僅有2項(xiàng)研究對(duì)男孩或女孩進(jìn)行干預(yù)實(shí)驗(yàn)(Rocha et al.,2016; Veldman et al.,2017),其余研究皆采用整體(男童和女童)樣本,且性別比例大致相當(dāng)。
59%的研究采用隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì)(Adamo et al.,2016;Alhassan et al.,2012; Bellows et al.,2013; Bonvin et al.,2013;Donath et al.,2015; Foulkes et al.,2017; Froehlich et al.,2016;Hamilton et al.,2018; Jones et al.,2011; Lemos et al.,2012;Mostafavi et al.,2013; Piek et al.,2013; Veldman et al.,2017;Vidoni et al.,2014; Wasenius et al.,2017; Zachopoulou et al.,2004),其中采用整群隨機(jī)分組的研究占19%(Adamo et al.,2016; Foulkes et al.,2017; Iivonen et al.,2011; Piek et al.,2013; Vidoni et al.,2014)。所有隨機(jī)對(duì)照干預(yù)研究皆使用了具有良好效度的基本動(dòng)作技能測(cè)評(píng)工具。15%的研究同時(shí)使用了隨機(jī)序列和分配隱藏(Bonvin et al.,2013; Foulkes et al.,2017; Jones et al.,2011; Wasenius et al.,2017),15%的研究對(duì)實(shí)施者和受試者施盲(Adamo et al.,2016; Bonvin et al.,2013; Wasenius et al.,2017; Zachopoulou et al.,2004),22%的研究對(duì)測(cè)評(píng)者施盲(Adamo et al.,2016; Bonvin et al.,2013;Foulkes et al.,2017; Jones et al.,2011; Veldman et al.,2017;Wasenius et al.,2017),15%的研究報(bào)告了結(jié)果數(shù)據(jù)的完整性并且所有樣本無數(shù)據(jù)缺失(Donath et al.,2015; Mostafavi et al.,2013; Veldman et al.,2017; Vidoni et al.,2014)。112個(gè)條目(16×7)的評(píng)分者信度具有統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)意義的一致性(k=0.78,P<0.01)。
采用準(zhǔn)實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì)(Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Fotini et al.,2004; Martin et al.,2009; Robinson,2011; Rocha et al.,2016)和非隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì)的研究(Deli et al.,2006; Iivonen et al.,2011; Robinson et al.,2016; Salaj et al.,2016; Tsapakidou et al.,2014)分別占22%和19%,其中1項(xiàng)研究采用自身前后對(duì)照的方法(Robinson,2011)。研究質(zhì)量為低偏倚風(fēng)險(xiǎn)(Brian et al.,2017a)和中偏倚風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的研究(Brian et al.,2017b)各占 4%,高偏倚風(fēng)險(xiǎn)研究占 7%(Martin et al.,2009; Rocha et al.,2016),其余 26%的研究因在某個(gè)或多個(gè)重要的領(lǐng)域中缺乏信息無法判斷偏倚風(fēng)險(xiǎn)等級(jí)(Deli et al.,2006; Fotini et al.,2004; Iivonen et al.,2011; Robinson,2011,2016; Salaj et al.,2016; Tsapakidou et al.,2014)。77個(gè)條目(11×7)的評(píng)分者信度具有統(tǒng)計(jì)學(xué)意義的一致性(k=0.65,P<0.01)。
樣本量在50~100人的研究占52%(Adamo et al.,2016;Alhassan et al.,2012; Brian et al.,2017b; Deli et al.,2006; Fotini et al.,2004; Froehlich et al.,2016; Iivonen et al.,2011; Jones et al.,2011; Martin et al.,2009; Mostafavi et al.,2013; Salaj et al.,2016; Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Veldman et al.,2017;Zachopoulou et al.,2004)。19%的研究的樣本量小于 50人(Donath et al.,2015; Lemos et al.,2012; Robinson,2011; Rocha et al.,2016; Vidoni et al.,2014),樣本量介于 100~150人(Brian et al.,2017a; Foulkes et al.,2017; Hamilton et al.,2018;Robinson et al.,2016)以及大于 150人的研究(Bellows et al.,2013; Bonvin et al.,2013; Piek et al.,2013; Wasenius et al.,2017)各占15%。
3.3.1 干預(yù)時(shí)間
從單次干預(yù)時(shí)間來看,52%的研究干預(yù)時(shí)間集中在30~40 min(Alhassan et al.,2012; Brian et al.,2017a,2017b;Deli et al.,2006; Donath et al.,2015; Martin et al.,2009; Mostafavi et al.,2013; Piek et al.,2013; Robinson,2011,2016; Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Veldman et al.,2017; Vidoni et al.,2014; Zachopoulou et al.,2004),其次,有15%的研究在41~50 min(Fotini et al.,2004; Lemos et al.,2012; Iivonen et al.,2011; Rocha et al.,2016),<30 min (Bellows et al.,2013; Hamilton et al.,2018;Jones et al.,2011)和>50 min(Foulkes et al.,2017; Salaj et al.,2016)的研究分別占 11%和 7%。從干預(yù)頻率來看,干預(yù)為2天/周的研究(Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Deli et al.,2006;Donath et al.,2015; Fotini et al.,2004; Iivonen et al.,2011;Robinson,2011; Rocha et al.,2016; Salaj et al.,2016; Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Veldman et al.,2017; Zachopoulou et al.,2004)占44%,僅1天/周的干預(yù)研究(Foulkes et al.,2017; Hamilton et al.,2018; Lemos et al.,2012)占 11%,3天/周(Jones et al.,2011; Mostafavi et al.,2013; Robinson et al.,2016)、4 天/周(Bellows et al.,2013; Piek et al.,2013)及5天/周(Alhassan et al.,2012; Martin et al.,2009; Vidoni et al.,2014)分別占11%、7%、11%。從總體上看,干預(yù)的時(shí)間從 5周(Robinson et al.,2016)到30個(gè)月(約130周)(Rocha et al.,2016)不等,8~16周(Brian et al.,2017a; Deli et al.,2006;Hamilton et al.,2018; Mostafavi et al.,2013; Robinson,2011;Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Veldman et al.,2017; Vidoni et al.,2014;Zachopoulou et al.,2004)和 17~26周(Adamo et al.,2016;Alhassan et al.,2012; Bellows et al.,2013; Fotini et al.,2004;Jones et al.,2011; Iivonen et al.,2011; Piek et al.,2013; Wasenius et al.,2017)的研究分別占 33%和 30%,<8周(Brian et al.,2017b; Donath et al.,2015; Fotini et al.,2004; Martin et al.,2009; Robinson et al.,2016)和>26周(Bonvin et al.,2013;Froehlich et al.,2016; Lemos et al.,2012; Rocha et al.,2016; Salaj et al.,2016)皆占19%。
3.3.2 干預(yù)模式
“教師主導(dǎo)”的干預(yù)模式研究(Adamo et al.,2016;Alhassan et al.,2012; Bellows et al.,2013; Bonvin et al.,2013;Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Foulkes et al.,2017; Froehlichet al.,2016; Jones et al.,2011; Iivonen et al.,2011; Piek et al.,2013;Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Vidoni et al.,2014)與“以兒童為中心”的干預(yù)模式研究(Deli et al.,2006; Donath et al.,2015;Fotini et al.,2004; Hamilton et al.,2018; Lemos et al.,2012;Martin et al.,2009; Mostafavi et al.,2013; Robinson,2011,2016;Rocha et al.,2016; Salaj et al.,2016; Veldman et al.,2017;Zachopoulou et al.,2004)皆占48%,另外有1項(xiàng)研究為父母和普通學(xué)前教師合作實(shí)施的干預(yù),即“教師-家長模式”(Wasenius et al.,2017)。根據(jù)“以兒童為中心”的干預(yù)模式,干預(yù)實(shí)施者為體育教師或指導(dǎo)員(Deli et al.,2006;Donath et al.,2015; Fotini et al.,2004; Mostafavi et al.,2013;Robinson,2011,2016)占 22%,研究者(Martin et al.,2009;Rocha et al.,2016; Veldman et al.,2017; Zachopoulou et al.,2004)占 15%,專家(Hamilton et al.,2018; Lemos et al.,2012)占7%,教練(Salaj et al.,2016)占4%。
干預(yù)參考成熟項(xiàng)目模式的結(jié)構(gòu)化身體活動(dòng)課程的研究(Adamo et al.,2016; Bellows et al.,2013; Bonvin et al.,2013;Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Foulkes et al.,2017; Froehlich et al.,2016; Jones et al.,2011; Iivonen et al.,2011; Martin et al.,2009;Mostafavi et al.,2013; Piek et al.,2013; Robinson,2011,2016;Veldman et al.,2017; Vidoni et al.,2014; Wasenius et al.,2017;Zachopoulou et al.,2004)占 67%,使用結(jié)構(gòu)化課程或訓(xùn)練的研究(Alhassan et al.,2012; Deli et al.,2006; Donath et al.,2015; Fotini et al.,2004; Hamilton et al.,2018; Lemos et al.,2012; Rocha et al.,2016; Salaj et al.,2016; Tsapakidou et al.,2014)占33%。
70%的研究采用 TGMD作為測(cè)評(píng)工具,除1項(xiàng)研究采用 TGMD-1外(Deli et al.,2006),其余研究均采用TGMD-2(Adamo et al.,2016; Alhassan et al.,2012; Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Donath et al.,2015; Foulkes et al.,2017;Froehlich et al.,2016; Jones et al.,2011; Lemos et al.,2012;Iivonen et al.,2011; Martin et al.,2009; Mostafavi et al.,2013;Robinson,2011,2016; Rocha et al.,2016; Salaj et al.,2016;Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Veldman et al.,2017; Wasenius et al.,2017)。采用PDMS-2(Bellows et al.,2013; Hamilton et al.,2018)、BOT-2(Piek et al.,2013; Vidoni et al.,2014)和MOT4-6(Fotini et al.,2004; Zachopoulou et al.,2004)的研究均占7%,使用ZNA(Bonvin et al.,2013)和APM(Iivonen et al.,2011)的研究各占4%。
26%的研究使用了回歸分析(Bonvin et al.,2013)或回歸分析與t檢驗(yàn)(Foulkes et al.,2017; Robinson et al.,2016;Veldman et al.,2017)、方差分析(Bellows et al.,2013; Piek et al.,2013)、卡方檢驗(yàn)(Wasenius et al.,2017)結(jié)合使用,19%的研究僅使用了 t檢驗(yàn)(Brian et al.,2017a,2017b;Froehlich et al.,2016; Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Vidoni et al.,2014),22%的研究僅使用了方差分析(Deli et al.,2006;Donath et al.,2015; Fotini et al.,2004; Hamilton et al.,2018; Salaj et al.,2016; Zachopoulou et al.,2004),19%的研究將t檢驗(yàn)和方差分析結(jié)合使用(Jones et al.,2011; Lemos et al.,2012;Martin et al.,2009; Mostafavi et al.,2013; Robinson,2011),15%的研究使用了非參數(shù)檢驗(yàn)(卡方檢驗(yàn)、秩和檢驗(yàn))與方差分析、U檢驗(yàn)結(jié)合使用(Adamo et al.,2016; Alhassan et al.,2012; Iivonen et al.,2011; Rocha et al.,2016)。
經(jīng)過測(cè)評(píng),干預(yù)組后測(cè)評(píng)分顯著高于前測(cè)且高于控制組,即有效干預(yù)(Adamo et al.,2016; Bellows et al.,2013;Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Deli et al.,2006; Donath et al.,2015;Fotini et al.,2004; Hamilton et al.,2018; Jones et al.,2011;Lemos et al.,2012; Martin et al.,2009; Mostafavi et al.,2013;Piek et al.,2013; Robinson,2011,2016; Rocha et al.,2016; Salaj et al.,2016; Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Veldman et al.,2017;Vidoni et al.,2014; Wasenius et al.,2017; Zachopoulou et al.,2004),其所占比例為 81%;干預(yù)組后測(cè)評(píng)分與前測(cè)或控制組后測(cè)評(píng)分無顯著差異,即無效干預(yù)(Alhassan et al.,2012; Bonvin et al.,2013; Foulkes et al.,2017; Froehlich et al.,2016; Iivonen et al.,2011),其所占比例為19%。15%的研究(Foulkes et al.,2017; Iivonen et al.,2011; Piek et al.,2013; Veldman et al.,2017)對(duì)干預(yù)結(jié)果進(jìn)行了跟蹤調(diào)查,僅有 1項(xiàng)跟蹤結(jié)果顯示與前測(cè)得分相比顯著提高(Veldman et al.,2017)。
有 26%的研究對(duì)干預(yù)情況的性別差異進(jìn)行了說明(Bellows et al.,2013; Foulkes et al.,2017; Iivonen et al.,2011;Piek et al.,2013; Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Wasenius et al.,2017;Zachopoulou et al.,2004),其中1項(xiàng)研究表明女生的物體控制能力顯著高于男生(Bellows et al.,2013),還有1項(xiàng)研究表明男生的3項(xiàng)動(dòng)作技能顯著高于女生(Piek et al.,2013),19%的研究結(jié)果顯示性別之間無顯著差異(Foulkes et al.,2017; Iivonen et al.,2011; Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Wasenius et al.,2017; Zachopoulou et al.,2004)。
在所有研究中,19%的研究僅針對(duì)物體控制技能進(jìn)行干預(yù)(Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Donath et al.,2015; Robinson,2011; Veldman et al.,2017)。僅1項(xiàng)研究的接球技能無顯著提高(Donath et al.,2015),其他研究的各技能顯著提高。11%的研究僅針對(duì)位移技能進(jìn)行干預(yù)(Alhassan et al.,2012;Deli et al.,2006; Tsapakidou et al.,2014),其中2項(xiàng)結(jié)果顯示各位移技能顯著提高(Deli et al.,2006; Tsapakidou et al.,2014),另1項(xiàng)結(jié)果顯示僅跨跳技能顯著提高(Alhassan et al.,2012)。41%的研究針對(duì)位移和物體控制技能進(jìn)行干預(yù)(Adamo et al.,2016; Foulkes et al.,2017; Froehlich et al.,2016;Jones et al.,2011; Lemos et al.,2012; Martin et al.,2009;Mostafavi et al.,2013; Robinson et al.,2016; Rocha et al.,2016;Salaj et al.,2016; Wasenius et al.,2017),其中7%的研究為無效干預(yù)(Foulkes et al.,2017; Froehlich et al.,2016),33%的研究為有效干預(yù)(Adamo et al.,2016; Jones et al.,2011;Lemos et al.,2012; Martin et al.,2009; Mostafavi et al.,2013;Robinson et al.,2016; Rocha et al.,2016; Salaj et al.,2016;Wasenius et al.,2017)。7%的研究對(duì)位移和穩(wěn)定技能進(jìn)行干預(yù)(Bonvin et al.,2013; Zachopoulou et al.,2004),4%的研究為有效干預(yù)(Zachopoulou et al., 2004)。22%的研究對(duì)位移、物體控制和穩(wěn)定技能進(jìn)行干預(yù)(Bellows et al.,2013;Fotini et al.,2004; Hamilton et al.,2018; Iivonen et al.,2011; Piek et al.,2013; Vidoni et al.,2014),4%的研究干預(yù)效果無顯著變化(Iivonen et al.,2011),其中1項(xiàng)干預(yù)結(jié)果顯示穩(wěn)定技能顯著提高,但位移技能和物體控制技能無顯著變化(Hamilton et al.,2018);其他研究為有效干預(yù)(Bellows et al.,2013;Fotini et al.,2004; Hamilton et al.,2018; Piek et al.,2013; Vidoni et al.,2014)。
4.1.1 地區(qū)
研究證據(jù)表明,來自社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)較差地區(qū)的兒童由于缺少環(huán)境支持,其發(fā)展基本動(dòng)作技能的機(jī)會(huì)較少且表現(xiàn)為發(fā)展滯后(Goodway et al.,2003;Martin et al.,2009)。鑒于此,很多學(xué)者關(guān)注干預(yù)對(duì)該地區(qū)幼兒的基本動(dòng)作技能發(fā)展的“補(bǔ)救”作用。在10項(xiàng)社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)較差地區(qū)幼兒人群的研究中,8項(xiàng)(Bellows et al.,2013; Brian et al.,2017a; Hamilton et al.,2018; Martin et al.,2009; Piek et al.,2013; Robinson, 2011,2016; Veldman et al.,2017)表現(xiàn)為有效干預(yù),這在很大程度上肯定了干預(yù)對(duì)該地區(qū)幼兒基本動(dòng)作技能促進(jìn)的積極作用。
環(huán)境支持作為影響幼兒基本動(dòng)作技能發(fā)展的外部原因,合適的器材,充足的身體活動(dòng)空間等是發(fā)展兒童基本動(dòng)作技能必備條件。國外干預(yù)研究樣本多來自發(fā)達(dá)國家的城市(Adamo et al.,2016; Brian et al.,2017a,2017b; Donath et al.,2015; Foulkes et al.,2017; Iivonen et al.,2011; Lemos et al.,2012; Piek et al.,2013; Robinson,2011a; Rocha et al.,2016;Tsapakidou et al.,2014; Vidoni et al.,2014),農(nóng)村(Froehlich et al.,2016; Martin et al.,2009)或城鄉(xiāng)混合樣本(Bellows et al.,2013; Bonvin et al.,2013)很少且城鄉(xiāng)發(fā)展差異不大,故無法對(duì)干預(yù)效果是否存在城鄉(xiāng)差異進(jìn)行有力的評(píng)估。對(duì)尚處于發(fā)展中的中國來說,大多數(shù)幼兒園不具備室內(nèi)體育館、足夠的室外玩耍區(qū)域甚至教室空間,農(nóng)村發(fā)展更是明顯滯后于城市。目前,我國的研究鮮見對(duì)農(nóng)村地區(qū)幼兒的干預(yù)。因此農(nóng)村地區(qū)的干預(yù)是我國學(xué)者及學(xué)前教育者需要重點(diǎn)關(guān)注的地方。在此基礎(chǔ)上,針對(duì)城市幼兒人群的干預(yù)方案是否能應(yīng)用到農(nóng)村幼兒人群中應(yīng)該根據(jù)現(xiàn)有的研究進(jìn)行充分評(píng)估,并在實(shí)踐中加以驗(yàn)證。
4.1.2 年齡
研究發(fā)現(xiàn)平均年齡在 3~4歲、4~5歲、5~6歲年齡段的有效干預(yù)比例逐漸提高(50%,73%,100%),但由于缺乏縱向研究,所以無法斷定基本動(dòng)作技能的干預(yù)效果與年齡的關(guān)系。盡管如此,兒童隨著年齡的增長身體不斷發(fā)育且認(rèn)知能力不斷增強(qiáng),結(jié)合整體研究有效干預(yù)的趨勢(shì)可以推測(cè)年齡是影響干預(yù)有效性的重要因素之一?!皠?dòng)作發(fā)展山峰”理論認(rèn)為年齡并不是個(gè)體動(dòng)作技能發(fā)展的決定因素,而取決于個(gè)體經(jīng)驗(yàn),即幼兒通過感覺、觀察和參與或者在具體做的過程中獲得動(dòng)作技能(Clark et al.,2002b)。Newell(1984)認(rèn)為,個(gè)體基本動(dòng)作技能的發(fā)展受到任務(wù)、環(huán)境和個(gè)體三方面的相互作用影響,除幼兒自身,干預(yù)實(shí)施者可以通過控制或改變符合幼兒年齡特點(diǎn)的任務(wù)和環(huán)境來提高兒童基本動(dòng)作技能的發(fā)展。比如,“音樂-運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃(Deli et al.,2006; Zachopoulou et al.,2004)”和“掌握激勵(lì)氛圍動(dòng)作模式(Martin et al.,2009; Robinson,2011a)”的干預(yù)研究分別從任務(wù)、環(huán)境兩方面進(jìn)行了實(shí)踐應(yīng)用,均取得了良好的干預(yù)效果。除以上兩種干預(yù)方案外,國外學(xué)者開發(fā)了多種基于身體活動(dòng)的課程模式(Goodway et al.,2006;Robinson et al.,2016; Sallis et al.,1993; Zacharopoulou,2007)可供我國學(xué)者或教育工作者借鑒并根據(jù)實(shí)際情況改良,用于指導(dǎo)干預(yù)。
4.1.3 性別
大多數(shù)研究并沒有就干預(yù)結(jié)果是否在性別上有所差異進(jìn)行描述,部分研究盡管對(duì)性別進(jìn)行了比較,但并未發(fā)現(xiàn)普遍的性別差異。事實(shí)上,從幼兒發(fā)育的特點(diǎn)和規(guī)律來看,在青春期之前,男童和女童在身體上非常相似,生物特征(包括體型)幾乎沒有差異,如身體成分、力量和肢體長度,這表明在生物學(xué)上并不存在造成性別差異的條件(Thomas et al.,1985)。這說明,單純基于生物學(xué)發(fā)展理論的幼兒基本動(dòng)作干預(yù)在不同性別幼兒中的效果應(yīng)該是一致的。盡管如此,不同性別幼兒在認(rèn)知和社會(huì)發(fā)展特點(diǎn)上的差異仍需要研究者的關(guān)注。如果干預(yù)方案對(duì)不同性別幼兒的認(rèn)知和社會(huì)發(fā)展特點(diǎn)產(chǎn)生不同效果的影響,那么干預(yù)的總體效果也會(huì)收到不同程度的影響。因此,未來研究在制定干預(yù)方案時(shí),需要考慮不同生物學(xué)、認(rèn)知和社會(huì)學(xué)因素對(duì)不同性別幼兒的基本動(dòng)作技能的影響。
半數(shù)以上的研究使用了隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì)。采用隨機(jī)序列和分配隱藏,遵從“盲法原則”(包括對(duì)對(duì)研究者、受試者及測(cè)評(píng)者施盲),盡量保證結(jié)果數(shù)據(jù)的完整性,呈現(xiàn)完整的研究方案等能夠最大程度減少分配偏倚,平衡預(yù)后因素(Higgins et al.,2011)。國際上認(rèn)可度高且使用廣泛的CONSORT聲明(Altman et al.,2001),為編寫隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)報(bào)告提供一種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)方法,基于此方法的報(bào)告有助于人們嚴(yán)格評(píng)價(jià)實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì)和解釋結(jié)果,發(fā)現(xiàn)難以解釋的或潛在偏倚。然而,只有4項(xiàng)研究報(bào)告了CONSORT聲明(Adamo et al.,2016; Foulkes et al.,2017; Jones et al.,2011; Wasenius et al.,2017),大部分研究無法提供CONSORT聲明中的完整信息。建議我國的干預(yù)研究根據(jù) CONSORT聲明進(jìn)行研究設(shè)計(jì),以降低實(shí)驗(yàn)可能發(fā)生的偏倚程度,并使用 TIDieR表(Template for Intervention Description and Replication)(Hoffmann et al.,2014)提高干預(yù)措施的可重復(fù)性。
實(shí)驗(yàn)選取的樣本量從33人(Vidoni et al.,2014)到648人(Bonvin et al.,2013)不等,有近半數(shù)的研究選取的樣本量在 50~100人之間。理論上,樣本量的大小取決于測(cè)評(píng)的主要變量、方差和允許的誤差大小 3個(gè)方面。Barlett等(2001)在關(guān)于樣本量設(shè)計(jì)的研究中指出,在效應(yīng)量為0.8(中等),顯著性水平為0.05的條件下,將21人/組作為最小樣本量。建議我國學(xué)者在確定干預(yù)實(shí)驗(yàn)的樣本量時(shí)要建立在該理論基礎(chǔ)上,除此之外,還要綜合考慮實(shí)驗(yàn)的可操作性,非抽樣誤差的控制、經(jīng)費(fèi)預(yù)算等方面因素,力求達(dá)到一個(gè)最優(yōu)樣本量的選擇。
對(duì)照組的設(shè)置證明了 Clark關(guān)于基本動(dòng)作技能并不能自然發(fā)展的結(jié)論(Clark et al.,2002b),兒童需要借助合理動(dòng)作模式下的教學(xué)、練習(xí)和強(qiáng)化以提高基本動(dòng)作技能而非自由玩耍(Robinson et al.,2011,2012),這說明了兒童參與結(jié)構(gòu)化身體活動(dòng)的重要性。
4.3.1 干預(yù)時(shí)間
Capelle等(2017)提出每周至少 3次,每次至少 30 min,父母參與(確保技能在家庭正確實(shí)施)的干預(yù)有助于提高基本動(dòng)作技能水平;Logan等(2012)提出每周至少2次的頻率能改善干預(yù)效果;Savage等(2002)和Connor等(1996)提出 8~12周的干預(yù)可以帶來基本動(dòng)作技能發(fā)展的顯著變化。但是,絕大多數(shù)研究只考慮單一因素,或干預(yù)頻率或單次干預(yù)時(shí)間或干預(yù)周數(shù),總體而言,當(dāng)前研究仍然缺少明確的干預(yù)(指導(dǎo))時(shí)間依據(jù)。本研究從干預(yù)的有效性角度,發(fā)現(xiàn)單次時(shí)間在30~40 min,至少2次/周,總持續(xù)時(shí)長在 8~16周的干預(yù)能夠最大程度發(fā)揮干預(yù)效果。需要注意的是有效干預(yù)并沒有隨干預(yù)時(shí)間的增長而持續(xù)提高,可能的原因是幼兒認(rèn)知能力較差,注意力不易集中(Riethmuller et al.,2009),加之干預(yù)時(shí)間過長而變得單調(diào),導(dǎo)致幼兒未能真正融入干預(yù)實(shí)驗(yàn)(Logan et al.,2012);此外,兒童的基本動(dòng)作技能在一定量的指導(dǎo)之后,可能到達(dá)“極點(diǎn)”,但由于研究證據(jù)不足,無法確定具體的臨界點(diǎn)。大部分研究并沒有報(bào)告干預(yù)的實(shí)際指導(dǎo)練習(xí)時(shí)間而是報(bào)告包含熱身、放松活動(dòng)的總時(shí)間,如在1節(jié)30 min的干預(yù)課程中,除去熱身、放松及休息時(shí)間實(shí)際教學(xué)時(shí)間在20~24 min左右(Brian et al.,2017b),有研究認(rèn)為,將報(bào)告的實(shí)際干預(yù)教學(xué)時(shí)間作為中介變量,則干預(yù)時(shí)間與基本動(dòng)作技能的提高之間可能存在某種關(guān)系(Logan et al.,2012)。
少數(shù)的研究在干預(yù)結(jié)束后的一段時(shí)間內(nèi)進(jìn)行了跟蹤調(diào)查(Foulkes et al.,2017; Iivonen et al.,2011; Piek et al.,2013;Veldman et al.,2017),僅有1項(xiàng)研究結(jié)果顯示跟蹤測(cè)試得分與前測(cè)得分相比顯著提高(Veldman et al.,2017)。Foulkes等(2017)認(rèn)為干預(yù)時(shí)間相對(duì)較短,干預(yù)頻率和訓(xùn)練量不足,忽略了體育教師主導(dǎo)干預(yù)的作用等是導(dǎo)致干預(yù)未保持效果的可能原因。除此之外,動(dòng)作學(xué)習(xí)領(lǐng)域中的“基模理論(Schema Theory)”認(rèn)為不應(yīng)僅僅是重復(fù)練習(xí)動(dòng)作而忽視不同情境下學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)作(Schmidt,1975)。遺憾的是,可能由于資金、人力的原因,大部分研究并沒有進(jìn)行跟蹤測(cè)試,所以無法對(duì)干預(yù)產(chǎn)生的后續(xù)影響進(jìn)行評(píng)價(jià)分析。今后我國學(xué)者進(jìn)行基本運(yùn)動(dòng)技能干預(yù)時(shí),建議在干預(yù)結(jié)束后的一段時(shí)間內(nèi)進(jìn)行跟蹤調(diào)查,這是評(píng)價(jià)干預(yù)是否有效的重要方式之一。此外,針對(duì)干預(yù)維持效果差的問題,干預(yù)實(shí)施者在基本動(dòng)作技能教學(xué)中應(yīng)注意時(shí)間、頻率的安排,除重復(fù)學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)作外,還應(yīng)注重在不同情境下嘗試動(dòng)作的練習(xí)。
4.3.2 干預(yù)模式
干預(yù)模式是由干預(yù)實(shí)施者決定,干預(yù)實(shí)施者的專業(yè)背景、能力水平、盡責(zé)程度等對(duì)于改善干預(yù)效果具有重要作用。約有半數(shù)的干預(yù)研究采用“教師主導(dǎo)”模式,這與教師具有的獨(dú)特優(yōu)勢(shì)有關(guān)(Riethmuller et al.,2009),一方面,學(xué)前教師作為幼兒園/托兒所的職工無需外聘可降低干預(yù)的實(shí)施成本;另一方面,與幼兒的親密關(guān)系可使教師提高幼兒的參與水平,并且能夠最大限度挖掘干預(yù)潛力。此外,有研究表明學(xué)前兒童在與教師或同學(xué)進(jìn)行積極互動(dòng)時(shí)或處于理想環(huán)境時(shí)表現(xiàn)更加活躍(Dowda et al.,2004)。盡管優(yōu)勢(shì)明顯,但教師由于缺乏設(shè)計(jì)干預(yù)的知識(shí)和實(shí)施干預(yù)的信心,需要接受大量的訓(xùn)練和指導(dǎo)。本研究發(fā)現(xiàn),對(duì)教師進(jìn)行1 h至6天的培訓(xùn)所產(chǎn)生的干預(yù)效果并不理想,可見,對(duì)教師進(jìn)行的短時(shí)間培訓(xùn)遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不夠。作為對(duì)比,“以兒童為中心”的干預(yù)研究效率極高,這在很大程度上歸因于體育教師、教練及專家擁有較強(qiáng)的專業(yè)能力及豐富的教學(xué)經(jīng)驗(yàn),更能夠提高學(xué)前兒童的自我效能,并提供最新的基本動(dòng)作技能發(fā)展信息,促使學(xué)前兒童增強(qiáng)參與動(dòng)機(jī)。
在我國近25萬所幼兒園中,約95%的幼兒園沒有專職體育教師(中國新聞網(wǎng),2018),體育師資力量的匱乏無法使動(dòng)作技能教學(xué)得到保障。因此,細(xì)化學(xué)前教師的教學(xué)職能分工,加強(qiáng)學(xué)前體育教師人才的培養(yǎng)、引入,增加學(xué)前體育領(lǐng)域的資金投入是刻不容緩的。因此,學(xué)前中心在體育課程或基本動(dòng)作技能教學(xué)方面可以考慮聘請(qǐng)具有動(dòng)作技能發(fā)展背景的專家承擔(dān)相應(yīng)的教學(xué)任務(wù)。雖然聘請(qǐng)專家進(jìn)行教學(xué)這一做法不可能成為常態(tài),但已有研究采取合作互助式的方法,為干預(yù)提供了一種新的思路。有研究提出,研究人員和學(xué)校教師合作,彼此分擔(dān)責(zé)任,減小負(fù)擔(dān),提供支持(Riethmuller et al.,2009),顯示出了優(yōu)勢(shì)。另有研究提出,專家和教師采用“2-2-2”授課方式,即干預(yù)時(shí)間為6周,在 3個(gè) 2周的時(shí)間里實(shí)施的主要人員由專家向教師過渡(Foulkes et al.,2017),盡管該該研究的干預(yù)效果并不顯著,但在減小干預(yù)實(shí)施成本,增強(qiáng)教師專業(yè)水平,創(chuàng)新干預(yù)模式方面具有重要意義。
除學(xué)校環(huán)境外,父母在幼兒基本動(dòng)作技能的發(fā)展中扮演著重要的角色,如提供參與身體活動(dòng)的機(jī)會(huì),鼓勵(lì)和支持(Pediatrics,2002; Clark et al.,2002a)。此外,家庭環(huán)境能夠強(qiáng)化幼兒接收的干預(yù)指令、信息,提高干預(yù)效果(Pediatrics,2002; Clark et al.,2002a)。盡管如此,包含父母及家庭環(huán)境干預(yù)的研究仍然很少,這可能與父母參與的干預(yù)實(shí)施難度較大有關(guān)。Wasenius等(2017)采用教師和家長合作干預(yù)模式,除在學(xué)校進(jìn)行干預(yù)外,研究人員對(duì)家長進(jìn)行與教師相同的培訓(xùn),利用社區(qū)資源進(jìn)行相似的干預(yù),這無疑會(huì)加大干預(yù)的效果。父母的參與已被證明是十分重要的(Reilly et al.,2006),但如何均衡參與程度以及推廣實(shí)施是今后需要解決的問題。
大部分干預(yù)實(shí)驗(yàn)采用TGMD-2作為測(cè)評(píng)工具。TGMD-2最初是應(yīng)用在美國的體育教學(xué)中,因其跨文化的適應(yīng)性以及測(cè)評(píng)指標(biāo)的可操作性而成為全球范圍內(nèi)使用較為廣泛的基本動(dòng)作技能測(cè)評(píng)工具;此外,TGMD-2在大陸和臺(tái)灣地區(qū)也具有較高的信度和效度(李靜 等,2007; 吳升扣等,2014),說明其可作為中國幼兒基本動(dòng)作技能的測(cè)評(píng)工具。然而該工具無穩(wěn)定技能的相關(guān)指標(biāo),未能有效涵蓋基本動(dòng)作技能的完整指標(biāo)體系。國際上其他較為常用的測(cè)評(píng)工具以及主要存在的問題有:PDMS-2(2000年,美國),側(cè)重于對(duì)0~6歲兒童殘疾兒童運(yùn)動(dòng)的評(píng)價(jià)、干預(yù)和治療,測(cè)試內(nèi)容繁多、耗時(shí),尚未有證據(jù)證明它能夠跨區(qū)域、跨文化差異統(tǒng)一使用(Folio et al.,2000);BOT-2SF(2005年,加拿大),針對(duì)4~21歲人群,容易出現(xiàn)“地板效應(yīng)”和“天花板效應(yīng)”,具有評(píng)估范圍廣、評(píng)估指標(biāo)細(xì)和評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)嚴(yán)的特點(diǎn)(Bruininks,2005);MOT4-6(2006年,德國),針對(duì) 4~8歲兒童,廣泛應(yīng)用于甄別個(gè)體早期發(fā)育情況以及基本動(dòng)作技能的干預(yù)研究中,但測(cè)試指標(biāo)過多,成本過高(Zimmer et al.,1987);MABC-2(2007年,英國),針對(duì) 3~16歲兒童,分年齡段測(cè)試,是全世界用于評(píng)估兒童動(dòng)作問題使用的最廣泛的工具(Henderson et al.,2007)。
我國學(xué)者張厚粲等(1994)開發(fā)了 CDCC中國兒童發(fā)展量表(3~6歲),量表內(nèi)容由語言、認(rèn)知、社會(huì)認(rèn)知以及動(dòng)作 4個(gè)部分組成,主要對(duì)幼兒身體素質(zhì)與動(dòng)作發(fā)展進(jìn)行評(píng)價(jià)。雖然不是專門的基本動(dòng)作技能測(cè)評(píng)工具,但對(duì)于我國基本動(dòng)作技能測(cè)評(píng)工具的開發(fā)具有里程碑意義。此外,李靜(2007)、刁玉翠(2018)的研究表明 TGMD-2、TGMD-3在中國兒童人群基本動(dòng)作技能測(cè)評(píng)中具有良好的信效度。綜上所述,在我國開發(fā)出成熟的動(dòng)作技能測(cè)評(píng)工具之前,TGMD-2仍是我國學(xué)者在進(jìn)行相關(guān)干預(yù)研究時(shí)主要的測(cè)評(píng)工具。同時(shí),建議我國科研人員根據(jù)中國各年齡段兒童青少年的動(dòng)作技能發(fā)展情況的相關(guān)研究進(jìn)行分析,總結(jié)、歸納,參考國外測(cè)評(píng)工具的優(yōu)缺點(diǎn),構(gòu)建系統(tǒng)、科學(xué)的指標(biāo)體系,制訂客觀、全面的評(píng)價(jià)方法,開發(fā)出適合中國兒童青少年的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化測(cè)評(píng)工具。
盡管統(tǒng)計(jì)方法無優(yōu)劣之分,但根據(jù)研究的變量特征和數(shù)據(jù)分析目的需選擇適合的統(tǒng)計(jì)方法。U檢驗(yàn)、t檢驗(yàn)、卡方檢驗(yàn)等通過比較觀察值和理論值或比較不同組的數(shù)值發(fā)現(xiàn)差異,從而推斷干預(yù)是否有效,但缺陷在于它們無法探索自變量(是否干預(yù))與因變量(技能提高)之間的因果關(guān)系。在干預(yù)實(shí)驗(yàn)中不同年齡、性別、BMI等因素同樣作為協(xié)變量或者干擾因素影響實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果,因此引入方差分析和回歸分析十分必要,它們可以排除其他變量的干擾,觀察干預(yù)與因變量的關(guān)系,尤其是回歸分析能夠探索因果,觀察變量間的關(guān)系、方向和強(qiáng)度,并建立數(shù)學(xué)模型以便觀察特定變量來預(yù)測(cè)研究者感興趣的變量。建議我國學(xué)者多使用探索因果關(guān)系的統(tǒng)計(jì)方法,以確定干預(yù)對(duì)基本動(dòng)作技能的明確影響。
在檢索過程中受語言限制,只檢索了英文文獻(xiàn);納入文獻(xiàn)在方法學(xué)質(zhì)量上存在一定的偏倚風(fēng)險(xiǎn),這會(huì)對(duì)干預(yù)的有效性和結(jié)果造成一定影響;納入文獻(xiàn)的基本動(dòng)作技能測(cè)評(píng)工具不同,不便于橫向比較;由于納入的研究未充分關(guān)注動(dòng)作模式差異,尚無法進(jìn)行比較。
國外幼兒基本動(dòng)作技能干預(yù)對(duì)幼兒的動(dòng)作發(fā)展具有促進(jìn)作用。在學(xué)前中心采用隨機(jī)抽樣的方法,由體育教師、教練及專家主導(dǎo)的“以兒童為中心”的模式,每周至少 2次30~40 min的干預(yù)時(shí)間,持續(xù)時(shí)長在8~16周的干預(yù)表現(xiàn)出良好的干預(yù)效果。但是,國外研究也存在一些需要改進(jìn)的地方。在實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì)上,隨機(jī)分配的程序和樣本量的確定存在模糊的標(biāo)準(zhǔn);在干預(yù)模式上,缺乏對(duì)家長參與的干預(yù)模式的探索;在測(cè)評(píng)方法上,不同研究的測(cè)評(píng)工具存在較大的差異,無法進(jìn)行干預(yù)效果的橫向比較;在數(shù)據(jù)分析方面,存在統(tǒng)計(jì)分析無法有效推導(dǎo)有力的因果關(guān)系的問題;在干預(yù)結(jié)果上,缺乏后續(xù)的跟蹤測(cè)試。
研究建議我國學(xué)者在今后的干預(yù)研究中采用隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì),嚴(yán)格遵從 CONSORT聲明;根據(jù)幼兒不同年齡特點(diǎn),分別制定合理的干預(yù)頻率及時(shí)間;在采用體育教師、教練及專家主導(dǎo)的“以兒童為中心”的干預(yù)模式的基礎(chǔ)上,探索專家向?qū)W前教師過渡以及父母參與的干預(yù)模式;借鑒國外干預(yù)課程并開發(fā)針對(duì)中國學(xué)齡兒童特點(diǎn)的干預(yù)課程模式;采用恰當(dāng)?shù)慕y(tǒng)計(jì)方法(如回歸分析)控制干擾因素,量化干預(yù)的效應(yīng);在使用國外基本動(dòng)作技能測(cè)評(píng)工具(如 TGMD-2)的基礎(chǔ)上,開發(fā)適合我國幼兒的基本動(dòng)作技能測(cè)評(píng)工具。
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