Li Yi-fan

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Research on the Key Technologies in Manned Deep Space Exploration

Li Yi-fan

(R&D Center, China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology, Beijing, 100076)

The significance and development trend of manned deep space exploration are briefly described in this paper. The manned space exploration plans and schemes for deep space targets of the leading space countries are summarized. The key technologies of manned deep space exploration are summarized.The key technical connotation is expounded systematically.

Space activity; Manned deep space exploration; Key technology

0 Introduction

At present, space activities are mainly carried out in the vicinity of the Earth. Significant research achievements in satellite applications, near-Earth space explorations and manned space explorations have been made[1～4]. Based on previous technologies and experiences, exploring the immense deep space beyond the earth is an inevitable trend in the development of space activities and technologies. As far as science is concerned, deep space exploration is a necessary way for human beings to further understand and study the general situation, space variation and time variation of the universe and to determine the signs of life outside the earth. In practice, deep space exploration can also help human to exploit space resources, thus alleviating the growing resource needs. Besides, it can promote the developments of aerospace, materials and life science technologies. Therefore, deep space exploration is an important way to support mankind’s sustainable development[5～8].

Activities of deep space exploration first began in the 1960 s, when the United States and the former Soviet Union were in the arms race and successively launched a series of deep space probes. From the United States launched the first lunar probe Pioneer 0[9]in August 1958 to Russia launched its Mars probe ExoMars[10]in 2016, countries all around the world conducted a total of 254 deep space exploration missions with a success rate of over 50%. As a result of the U.S. - Soviet aerospace competition between 1958 and 1976 as well as the discovery of water ice on the Moon by the lunar probe Clementine[11]in 1994, deep space exploration became a global hit twice during 50 years of its development, and greatly promoted the innovation and progress of technologies in deep space exploration.

According to different countries’ plans for deep space exploration in recent years, manned deep space exploration will surely be the main focus of task model as well as the major development direction in future deep space explorations. Because manned deep space exploration not only represents the first-class aerospace technology, but also indicates the scientific and technological progress. Although the United States has already accomplished the manned lunar landing task with Apollo, manned deep space exploration remains quite difficult in view of its technology problems. Therefore, a large amount of demonstrations and assessments are needed before mission’s implement.

This paper systematically summarizes the published or implemented missions or plans for manned deep space exploration, assesses and summarizes the technical difficulties, analyzes the key technologies involved in the manned deep space exploration and expounds the technical connotation and means. The studies in this paper can be taken as a reference for China's future manned deep space exploration activities.

1 Manned Lunar Exploration

In manned lunar exploration, the United States realized the first and the only manned lunar landing in the 1960s. Recently, other countries have also actively demonstrated plans for manned lunar landing. Although the time and route of manned lunar landing vary from one country to another, the types of mission are similar to each other, such as sampling, geomorphological exploration and direct lunar base construction after manned lunar landing.

1.1 American Manned Lunar Landing Plan

The United States carried out a series of manned lunar landing missions Apollo from May 1961 to December 1972, successively launching seven lunar spacecraft. Except Apollo 13, all the other six missions were launched successfully. During the manned lunar exploration, Apollo 1 to Apollo 10 conducted a number of unmanned and manned flight missions on near-Earth orbit and performed several lunar landing rehearsals.

On January 14, 2004, President George W. Bush announced the New Space Exploration Project[12]to promote the progress of aerospace technology in the U.S., maintain and expand their advantages in the aerospace industry, especially in manned deep space explorations. Three space exploration tasks which NASA is going to achieve by 2020 had been proposed:

a) The International Space Station would be constructed before the space shuttle retired in 2010.

b) The Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV, renamed as Orion in 2008) would be finished in 2008. CEV’s first flight mission had to be implemented in 2014.

c) The manned re-entry from the moon would be achieved in 2020, and a lunar base would be constructed and finally, the manned Mars exploration and other deep space exploration missions would be achieved.

In September 2005, NASA’s official announcement of the plan return to the Moon would allow the investment of 104 billion dollars in the next 10 years to develop manned spacecraft and launch vehicles. Besides, they were going to achieve a second lunar landing in 2018. In order to accomplish this task, the specific implementation plan Constellation[13]had later been announced. NASA's Constellation has set a bold plan for returning to the moon with a multi-billion dollar investment. The construction of a space transportation system would allow a round trip to the moon, support the supply of the ISS and ultimately export humans to Mars. Previous related technical studies have accumulated a large amount of technological bases for subsequent manned lunar landing despite the later cancellation of this plan.

In addition, in March 2017, SpaceX announced plans to achieve manned lunar landing by 2018. In October 2017, the U.S. government also announced the official launch of a manned lunar landing program and the establishment of a permanent lunar base. Because the plans mentioned above were just proposed shortly before, the specific program details and schedule are yet to be announced.

1.2 Russian Manned Lunar Landing Plan

After entering the 21st century, Russia has also started the lunar exploration program as the EU, the U.S. and other countries are carrying out return to the Moon plan. According to its manned aerospace development strategy, Russia will carry out manned lunar landing missions and manned Mars missions from 2026 to 2040. It will establish a long-term lunar research station before 2032, inspect a manned Mars mission after 2035 and built a protection system to prevent the asteroid from hitting the Earth. The newly revised Russian Federation Space Plan 2016-2025[14]made it clear that lunar exploring, manned lunar landing and lunar staying are all important directions for the development of Russian manned space programs.

2 Manned Mars Exploration

2.1 American Manned Mars Program

The plan and demonstration of the U.S. on manned Mars exploration start relatively early. In 1993, the Design Reference Mission (DRM)[15～17]was proposed by the Johnson Space Center (JSC). Then the United States put forward a series of improved versions for DRM task, including DRM 1 ~ DRM 5. The DRM will mainly perform Mars landings and set up a living quarter, which will rendezvous with the landing cabin on Mars, for astronauts’ long-term use. In this plan, the idea that utilizing the Nuclear Thermal Rocket (NTR) to fulfill the round-trip between the Earth and the Mars was also proposed, so as to improve the efficiency of both transfer time and fuel consumption.

The DRM 5 is the most advanced manned Mars exploration program in the series of DRM to date[18]. Based on the DRM 1 and DRM 3, and taking the launch vehicle Ares-V, Ares-I and spacecraft Orion as benchmarks, this program uses multi-launch and multi-docking system to design a manned Mars exploration mission with a duration of 900 days. Earth-Mars interplanetary space shuttle will be the most complex spacecraft in history. Its development will represent the most advanced human space technology.

On January 14, 2004, President Bush announced a new concept of space exploration at NASA headquarters, claiming that the United States will land on asteroid around 2037. In order to realize this idea, NASA launched the Constellation Program (or Constellation Project), which plans to build a space transportation system that can support the supply of the ISS and eventually send humans to Mars. In response to the constellation plan, NASA began the Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS) in May 2005 and finalized its ESAS report in November, setting specific steps for the mission of manned Mars[19].

In addition, the United States put forward the plan Mars 2020 in 2004[20]. In April 2010, the Obama administration introduced the 21st Century Space Exploration Strategy and set the goal to send manned spacecraft to enter into the Mars orbit in the mid-2030 s, and then achieve the manned Mars landing. At the same time, it is necessary to make full use of the existing technological achievements of the Constellation Plan to propose new exploration tasks. NASA has launched and is in the process of implementing a series of plans to achieve the manned Mars exploration around 2030: a) Develop a new type of manned space system; b) Carry out robot detection activities; c) Harness the resources and strength of private enterprises, develop and validate the technologies and capabilities of manned spacecraft in near-Earth orbit to enable the Government to allocate resources on the implementation of the manned deep space explorations.

Subsequently, the American Company Boeing first proposed the design of the Spaceship Discovery at the STAIF Conference in 2006[21,22]. A detailed description of this design was further proposed in the 2006 joint propulsion and space conference with the AIAA. The design solutions of spacecraft can be used to a variety of manned deep space explorations: the moon, Mars, Ganymede and Callisto. There are two types of landing modules of Spacecraft Discovery: one is a manually controlled manned landing module called Lander Modules 2 (LM2) and the other is an automatically controlled cargo landing module called Lander Modules 3 (LM3). The designs of LM2 and LM3 were first introduced by Boeing at the 2007 AIAA Space Conference and the latest design was introduced at the 2008 STAIF Conference.

In addition, SpaceX announced that it plans to launch a manned Mars probe in 2024 and realize manned Mars landing in 2025. Tests related to the currently planned spacecraft Dragon have now started.

2.2 Russian Manned Mars Program

Russia plans to carry out manned Mars missions beyond 2035. Although the study of its manned Mars exploration is still at the theory stage, Russia is making full use of its proven technologies, such as the ISS. Despite its poor economic condition, Russia still jumps on the bandwagon to Mars, striving to achieve the world's first Mars landing.

The project Mars-500[23]is a series of simulations conducted by ROSCOSMOS and the Institute of Biomedical Problems (IBMP) of the Russian Academy of Sciences focusing on various aspects of manned Mars mission. This project aims to study the human-environment system, where crew members are isolated in a narrow space with normal pressure environment for a long time, by simulating the long duration, high autonomy, the delay of signal transmission by state changes of communication with the Earth and the limited number of consumables during Mars flight, and collect data on astronaut's health and work ability and other issues.

Besides, although Russia's space agency tried to launch two Mars rover in succession in recent years, they all ended up with failure. However, these obstacles did not stop Russia from achieving its dream of exploring Mars. In March 2013, the Russian Federal Space Agency submitted the Strategy for the Development of Space Activities by 2030 to the government, which set out the basic route for Russia's manned Mars exploration.

2.3 ESA’s Manned Mars Program

In November 2001, ESA's Aurora Program[24]first mentioned its manned Mars exploration plan and considered implementing manned Mars exploration in 2030～2033. Concurrent Design Facility (CDF) research institute conducted an early conceptual study of the manned landing Mars mission Aurora and submitted a technical evaluation report on overall program in February 2004. The report adopt an orbit scheme on long-term staying point which will be implemented in 2033 with a total of 6 astronauts, 3 of whom will execute Mars landing. Although the round-trip orbit which can maintain long-term stay on the Martian surface, the stays on the Martian surface will only last 30 days considering the simplicity and risk reduction of the task. Astronauts will stay in the spacecraft surrounding Mars during the rest of the time. The mission's aircraft system can be divided into four parts: living cabin for interplanetary transition, Mars landing module, Earth's return capsule and propulsion module. Although the plan is still in the demonstration stage, it provides a clear path for ESA's future manned Mars exploration.

In addition, ESA proposed a space program Dawn in 2009, claiming that it plans to establish long-term exploration of solar system, including robotic and manned exploration and search for extraterrestrial life. Dawn is a real European manned Mars landing plan. The development of this long-term plan was based on the participation in the ISS docking flight, where ESA got flight training opportunities and thus mastered the technology for long-term living and working on trajectory.

3 Key Technologies of Manned Deep Space Exploration

Deep space exploration is more technically challenging than near-Earth space mission because the complex dynamics environment will present a greater challenge to trajectory design as well as far distance will make navigation, communication and orbit determination of the probe more demanding. However, more complex and complicated problems will emerge in manned deep space exploration such as astronaut's health protection problems during long-time flight in deep space, long-distance and large-velocity reentry safety problems and emergent return problems in unexpected situations. Therefore, manned deep space exploration is a very challenging space mission and therefore is the most advanced manifestation of human spaceflight technologies.

3.1 Power Technology of Manned Deep Space Exploration

3.1.1 Long-term On-orbit Space Cryogenic Technology

Due to the large increment of velocity required for manned deep space exploration and the large proportion of propellants in the entire system of the deep space probe, high performance and low temperature Oxyhydrogen engine scheme, which is the same as upper-level power technology of the launch vehicle, is adopted. The high specific impulse of cryogenic propellant can reduce the overall weight of the entire propulsion system, thereby lowering the requirements for the capacity of launch vehicle system. In addition, liquid Hydrogen-Oxygen can also provide supports for astronaut's safeguard system. Therefore, it is indispensable to develop long-term on-orbit storage technology, especially the volatility control technology of cryogenic propellant.

3.1.2 Engine Technology with High Specific Impulse and Variable Thrust

Because the engine with a variable thrust and the thrust with a continuously adjustable direction are needed in manned deep space exploration, because this kind of continuously variable thrust mode is conducive to the maneuver in deep space. The high specific impulse and variable thrust engine therefore is a necessary technology in manned deep space exploration. For example, in the American project Apollo, a variable-thrust engine with a maximum thrust of 44.5 kN and a maximum variable range of 10:1 of the lunar landing module is adopted. In the return to the Moon project, a variable thrust engine with the maximum thrust of 66.7 kN will also be adopted.

3.1.3 Attitude Control Technology in Hypersonic Atmosphere Reentry

When entering the atmosphere, the manned deep space return capsule will suffer a severe thermal ablation and thermal overload due to a second universe velocity caused by its return near the Earth. Therefore, a reasonable engine braking scheme has to be adopted to decelerate the return capsule. The aerodynamic shape of the return capsule, the increment of the re-entry corridors and reduction of the overload have to be considered during re-entry to Earth. This kind of constraints will be more stringent due to the presence of astronauts, therefore, reliable ignition and stable combustion of atmospheric attitude control system are the key technology to the success of reentry.

3.2 Environment and Medical Engineering Technology for Manned Deep Space Exploration

Poor living conditions of deep space during manned exploration tasks, such as vacuum, radiation, high and low temperature, microgravity, et al, will undermine astronauts' health dramatically. Besides, damages to astronauts' health will be particularly acute due to the variable gravity environment in the extended flight. Therefore, in order to ensure the success of the mission, a complete safeguard system for astronaut is required and corresponding protective measures are needed to monitor and maintain astronaut's physical and mental health[25].

3.2.1 Long-term Safeguard Issues for Astronauts

Life support is a typical issue that distinguishes manned deep space exploration from unmanned one. Continuous supply of oxygen, water, food and the effective disposal of waste are the premise of long-term resident on extraterrestrial celestial bodies. In manned deep space exploration, it is difficult to rely on the earth launch of the supply due to the large resource consumption and long flight distance. Material regeneration is the only way to solve this problem. At present, how to create a bio-regenerative life support system in a confined space is a focused issue. The key point is to use the biological cycle to purify air and water, produce food and dispose the waste. Air pressure, gas composition, temperature, humidity have to be controlled and other atmospheric environment during the biological growth process. Ecological food production and waste disposal process have to be balanced to maintain the stability of the system operation. Solutions to these problems are the premises for long-term survival of the manned explorations.

3.2.2 Physiological Effects and Protection of Variable Gravity

Due to the long duration and the variable gravity environment of the deep space exploration, changes in the cardiovascular, skeletal, muscular, immune systems of the astronaut will probably affect his or her health and work ability. In the manned deep space exploration, astronaut will not only be affected by the long-term microgravity effects but also by the low-gravity environment near the celestial body surface. During the process of landing or living, astronauts will also experience the transformation between microgravity and low gravity on the surface of celestial bodies. For example, in a Mars flight, astronaut will go through a dramatic change in the gravity environment: 200 days weightlessness →0.375 g gravity environment →200 days weightlessness →1 g gravity. Therefore, the impact of different gravitational environments on human body and corresponding protective measures are one of the most urgent problems to be solved in the current manned deep space exploration.

3.2.3 Effects and Protections in Extraterrestrial Environmental

For manned deep space exploration missions, space radiation that astronauts face during long-term flight or operations will significantly undermine their health. The damaging effects of space radiation on the human body can be mainly divided into two parts: serious short-term effects and delayed long-term effects. Short-term effects will mostly occur in the days or even in a shorter period after receiving the radiation and the main symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, hair loss, et al. While long-term effects will mostly occur in several months or years after exposed to radiation, including cancer, genetic disease, et al.

3.2.4 Physiological Health Monitoring and Mental Health Problems

Due to the adverse effects accumulated in human body due to long-term weightlessness, radiation, noise, vibration and circadian rhythms change during deep space exploration, the probability of suffering diseases will be increased. Meanwhile, prolonged flight time will also increase the failure rate of a spacecraft system. Flight practices show that astronauts, who pass the strict selection and are quite healthy, will still inevitably experience some functional or organic disorders despite the fact that health support measures have been adopted during the space flight. In addition, the long-term flight environment will have a large negative impact on the psychological status of astronauts, which will increase mistake rate of astronauts' work and decrease their work efficiency. Therefore, with the extension of flight, the mental health and work efficiency issues have been increasingly considered as one of the important factors affecting the success of a mission.

3.3 Trajectory Design Technology in Manned Deep Space Exploration

In terms of the constraints and flight modes of the probe, the deep space exploration mission has higher requirements for trajectory design, mainly because of the complex dynamic environment in deep space, the variable flight modes, the limited maneuvering capability and the delayed navigation and positioning of the probe, et al, which requires the trajectory design to be strongly robust and stable. For manned deep space exploration, trajectory design will be more demanding, for example, flight time has to be as short as possible and fuel distribution has to ensure high success rate of tasks.

During deep space exploration, the key technologies of orbital design generally include:

a) Trajectory design technology of gravity-assistance: propellant can be saved by adjusting or changing the flight path of the probe via planet gravity-assistance.

b) Trajectory design technology of pneumatic deceleration: the probe deceleration can be achieved by the help of planetary atmosphere, thus saving the fuel consumption to save more fuel for follow-up tasks.

c) Track design technology of small thrust transition: the thrust of a novel propeller can be used to achieve trajectory acceleration, reducing the mass of the payload and shortening the mission time.

3.4 Structure Design of Manned Deep Space Probe

The structure of the manned deep space probe is more demanding than the general probe when taking the protection for astronauts from the internal environment of the cabin[26]. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure the structure of manned probe with the properties of long life, low leakage rate, high reliability, light weight, et al. Besides, long-term tightness and structure precision of the large-scale manned sealed cabin on orbit have to be ensured, thus the overall program must take stress testing and evaluation techniques for manned sealed structure into consideration. In terms of load quality, the weight of spacecraft’s structure has to be reduced as much as possible when the requirements of certain strength and dimensional stability are met. In addition, the manned cabin has to be non-inflammable and antifungal, which is important for internal environmental protection. In the early stage of manned spacecraft abroad, project failures and casualties were usually caused by the unqualified non-flammable cabin. Therefore, the testing of non-inflammable and antifungal properties of manned cabin’s composite materials is also one of the key technologies in structural design.

3.5 Autonomous Navigation and Control Technology of Manned Deep Space Exploration

The importance of navigation and control systems in deep space exploration is self-evident. Autonomous navigation systems of manned spacecraft in deep space is primarily used to confirm orbital safety and to ensure the normal positioning and orbital maneuvering of the probe when the ground-based system cannot provide navigation and control information, which is especially important when the probe is on the way back to Earth. But note that the study of deep space autonomous navigation is not intended to replace ground tracking navigation, but rather to make them complementary in navigation of deep space exploration.

Many new technologies have emerged in the development of deep space autonomous navigation. For example, NASA's program New Prosperity puts intelligent autonomous technologies in the first place, enabling deep space probes to perform navigation, control, data processing, fault diagnosis, and some reconstruction and repair work independently. As the pilot of the program, the American probe Deep Space 1 has fulfilled intelligent autonomous control through technologies such as remote agent, autonomous navigation, beacon operation, independent software testing and automatic coding, which is the highest level of intelligent autonomous technology applications for a single spacecraft since the 21st century[27].

In addition, navigation and control of surface inspection probes are also important when spacecraft land and performing tasks on celestial bodies, mainly because: a) the positioning of probe is difficult in the complex natural environment of celestial bodies, thus the combined positioning method with goniometry and ranging technology have to be adopted. b) The efficiency of path planning can directly affect the complexity of control and detection efficiency, so path planning strategy, based on multi-sensor information fusion, must be adopted to achieve autonomous motion and scientific instrument operation. c) At present, it is difficult to realize complete autonomous control of inspection on celestial body's surface. Therefore, the local autonomy and remote operation, based on human-computer interaction, are the key technologies to realize the precise control of the probe, the operation of scientific instruments and the improvement of the detection efficiency.

3.6 Other Key Technologies of Manned Deep Space Exploration

In addition to the key deep space exploration technologies mentioned above, manned deep space exploration also involves the following key technologies: a) Thermal control technology. b) New propulsion technology. c) New energy technology. d) Communication’s measurement and control technology. e) Integrated electronic system technology. f) Payload technology. g) Extraterrestrial workstation technology. h) Delivery and transportation system technology. i) Manned system technology. j) Emergency return technology[28]. These technologies are indispensable throughout the manned deep space exploration.

4 Conclusion

Deep space exploration is currently one of the most active fields in space activities. But the task mode of manned deep space exploration is also the most technologically challenging and complex one in deep space exploration. This paper summarizes the foreign manned deep space exploration missions, plans and presents the current development status of manned deep space exploration. U.S. has accumulated valuable technologies and experiences for subsequent manned missions through the lunar landing program Apollo and a series of unmanned deep space exploration missions. Meanwhile, the technical solutions of other countries are still mostly staying at the demonstration and plan stages.

In addition, this paper also concludes the key technologies required in manned deep space exploration through the analysis of previous manned missions. Currently manned space exploration has to break through the technical barriers such as power technology, environmental engineering technology, medical engineering technology and emergency return technology. With the launching of deep space exploration activities in China, the manned deep space exploration will become an important focus in China's space development. In view of the current trend of international space development, it is indispensable for China to develop manned deep space exploration technologies. Therefore, speeding up the researches on manned space exploration could make good technical references for China’s future deep space explorations.

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載人深空探測關(guān)鍵技術(shù)研究

李一帆

（中國運(yùn)載火箭技術(shù)研究院研究發(fā)展中心，北京，100076）

簡述了載人深空探測的意義和發(fā)展趨勢(shì)，概述了國外主要航天大國的載人深空探測規(guī)劃，提出了載人深空探測的主要關(guān)鍵技術(shù)，并系統(tǒng)闡述了關(guān)鍵技術(shù)內(nèi)涵。

空間活動(dòng)；載人深空探測；關(guān)鍵技術(shù)

V47

A

2018-01-03

10.7654/j.issn.1004-7182.20180105

1004-7182(2018)01-0024-08

李一帆（1983-），女，工程師，主要研究方向?yàn)樯羁仗綔y航天器總體設(shè)計(jì)

Li Yifan (1983-), female, engineer, main research interest is the spacecraft system design for deep space exploration