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手機是否是你的一部分?

2018-08-06 20:28ByKarinaVold
英語學習 2018年7期
關鍵詞:智能手機大腦思想

By Karina Vold

In November 2017, a gunman entered a church in Sutherland Springs in Texas, where he killed 26 people and wounded 20 others. He escaped in his car, with police and residents in hot pursuit, before losing control of the vehicle and flipping it into a ditch. When the police got to the car, he was dead. The episode is horrifying enough without its unsettling epilogue.1 In the course of their investigations, the FBI reportedly pressed the gunmans finger to the fingerprint-recognition feature on his iPhone in an attempt to unlock it. Regardless of whos affected, its disquieting to think of the police using a corpse to break into someones digital afterlife.

Most democratic constitutions shield us from unwanted intrusions into our brains and bodies. They also enshrine2 our entitlement to freedom of thought and mental privacy. Thats why neurochemical drugs that interfere with cognitive functioning cant be administered against a persons will unless theres a clear medical justification. Similarly, according to scholarly opinion, law-enforcement officials cant compel someone to take a lie-detector test, because that would be an invasion of privacy and a violation of the right to remain silent.

But in the present era of ubiquitous technology, philosophers are beginning to ask whether biological anatomy really captures the entirety of who we are.3 Given the role they play in our lives, do our devices deserve the same protections as our brains and bodies?

After all, your smartphone is much more than just a phone. It can tell a more intimate story about you than your best friend. No other piece of hardware in history, not even your brain, contains the quality or quantity of information held on your phone: it “knows” whom you speak to, when you speak to them, what you said, where you have been, your purchases, photos, biometric4 data, even your notes to yourself—and all this dating back years.

In 2014, the United States Supreme Court used this observation to justify the decision that police must obtain a warrant before rummaging5 through our smartphones. These devices “are now such a pervasive and insistent part of daily life that the proverbial6 visitor from Mars might conclude they were an important feature of human anatomy”, as Chief Justice John Roberts observed in his written opinion.

The Chief Justice probably wasnt making a metaphysical7 point—but the philosophers Andy Clark and David Chalmers were when they argued in “The Extended Mind” (1998) that technology is actually part of us. According to traditional cognitive science, “thinking” is a process of symbol manipulation or neural computation, which gets carried out by the brain. Clark and Chalmers broadly accept this computational theory of mind, but claim that tools can become seamlessly8 integrated into how we think. Objects such as smartphones or notepads are often just as functionally essential to our cognition as the synapses9 firing in our heads. They augment10 and extend our minds by increasing our cognitive power and freeing up internal resources.

If accepted, the extended mind thesis threatens widespread cultural assumptions about the inviolate11 nature of thought, which sits at the heart of most legal and social norms. As the US Supreme Court declared in 1942: “freedom to think is absolute of its own nature; the most tyrannical12 government is powerless to control the inward workings of the mind.” This view has its origins in thinkers such as John Locke and René Descartes,13 who argued that the human soul is locked in a physical body, but that our thoughts exist in an immaterial world, inaccessible to other people. Ones inner life thus needs protecting only when it is externalised, such as through speech. Many researchers in cognitive science still cling to this Cartesian14 conception—only, now, the private realm of thought coincides with activity in the brain.

But todays legal institutions are straining15 against this narrow concept of the mind. They are trying to come to grips with how technology is changing what it means to be human, and to devise new normative16 boundaries to cope with this reality. Justice Roberts might not have known about the idea of the extended mind, but it supports his wry17 observation that smartphones have become part of our body. If our minds now encompass our phones, we are essentially cyborgs18: part-biology, part-technology. Given how our smartphones have taken over what were once functions of our brains—remembering dates, phone numbers, addresses—perhaps the data they contain should be treated on a par with19 the information we hold in our heads. So if the law aims to protect mental privacy, its boundaries would need to be pushed outwards to give our cyborg anatomy the same protections as our brains.

This line of reasoning leads to some potentially radical conclusions. Some philosophers have argued that when we die, our digital devices should be handled as remains: if your smartphone is a part of who you are, then perhaps it should be treated more like your corpse than your couch. Similarly, one might argue that trashing someones smartphone should be seen as a form of “extended” assault, equivalent to a blow to the head, rather than just destruction of property. If your memories are erased because someone attacks you with a club, a court would have no trouble characterising the episode as a violent incident. So if someone breaks your smartphone and wipes its contents, perhaps the perpetrator20 should be punished as they would be if they had caused a head trauma.

The extended mind thesis also challenges the laws role in protecting both the content and the means of thought—that is, shielding what and how we think from undue influence. Regulation bars non-consensual interference in our neurochemistry (for example, through drugs), because that meddles with the contents of our mind.21 But if cognition encompasses devices, then arguably they should be subject to the same prohibitions. Perhaps some of the techniques that advertisers use to hijack our attention online, to nudge22 our decision-making or manipulate search results, should count as intrusions on our cognitive process. Similarly, in areas where the law protects the means of thought, it might need to guarantee access to tools such as smartphones—in the same way that freedom of expression protects peoples right not only to write or speak, but also to use computers and disseminate23 speech over the internet.

The courts are still some way from arriving at such decisions. Besides the headline-making cases of mass shooters, there are thousands of instances each year in which police authorities try to get access to encrypted24 devices. Although the Fifth Amendment to the US Constitution protects individuals right to remain silent(and therefore not give up a passcode), judges in several states have ruled that police can forcibly use fingerprints to unlock a users phone. (With the new facial-recognition feature on the iPhone X, police might only need to get an unwitting25 user to look at her phone.) These decisions reflect the traditional concept that the rights and freedoms of an individual end at the skin.

But the concept of personal rights and freedoms that guides our legal institutions is outdated. It is built on a model of a free individual who enjoys an untouchable inner life. Now, though, our thoughts can be invaded before they have even been developed—and in a way, perhaps this is nothing new. The Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman26 used to say that he thought with his notebook. Without a pen and pencil, a great deal of complex reflection and analysis would never have been possible. If the extended mind view is right, then even simple technologies such as these would merit recognition and protection as a part of the essential toolkit of the mind.

2017年11月,一名槍手闖入得克薩斯州薩瑟蘭泉的一座教堂,造成26人死亡,20人受傷。他駕車逃離,警察和居民緊追不舍,結(jié)果汽車失控翻入溝中。警方趕到之時,槍手已經(jīng)死亡。即使沒有最后那個令人不安的結(jié)果,這個事件也已經(jīng)足夠可怕了。據(jù)報道,在調(diào)查過程中,F(xiàn)BI把槍手的手指按在他iPhone指紋識別的位置上試圖解鎖手機。且不論誰會受到影響,光是想到警察用尸體侵入某人死后的數(shù)碼生命,就難免令人感到不安。

大多數(shù)民主憲法保護我們的大腦和身體不受侵犯。這些憲法也保障我們的思想自由和精神隱私神圣不可侵犯。這也就是為什么干擾認知功能的神經(jīng)化學藥物不能在違背當事人意志的情況下使用,除非有明確的醫(yī)學理由。同樣,根據(jù)學者的意見,執(zhí)法人員不能強迫某人測謊,因為這會侵犯隱私權和保持沉默的權利。

但在這個技術無處不在的時代,哲學家們開始質(zhì)疑生物解剖是否真能完整地捕捉到我們是誰。鑒于手機設備在我們生活中扮演的角色,我們的手機設備是否應該得到與我們的大腦和身體同等的保護?

畢竟,你的智能手機不僅僅是一部手機。它比你最好的朋友還了解更私密的那個你。歷史上還沒有哪種硬件,甚至包括你的大腦,能像手機那樣包含如此質(zhì)量或數(shù)量的信息:手機知道你和誰說話,何時說話,說了什么,去過哪里,你的購買記錄、照片、生物識別數(shù)據(jù),甚至是你寫給自己的備忘錄——而且還是過去數(shù)年來的所有這些信息。

2014年,美國最高法院利用這一觀察來證明其決定警方必須取得搜查令才能搜查智能手機是合理的。正如首席大法官約翰·羅伯茨在他的書面意見中所說,這些設備“現(xiàn)在成了日常生活中如此無處不在、如影隨形的一部分,以至于人們常說的火星來客可能會認為手機是人體解剖結(jié)構的重要特征?!?/p>

首席大法官可能并不是在提出一個形而上的觀點——但當哲學家安迪·克拉克和戴維·查爾莫斯在1998年發(fā)表的《延伸的思想》中提出技術實際上是我們的一部分時,他們就是在提出一個形而上的觀點。根據(jù)傳統(tǒng)的認知科學,“思考”是一個由大腦執(zhí)行的符號操作或神經(jīng)計算過程??死撕筒闋柲勾篌w上接受這種思想的計算理論,但他們認為工具可以無縫接入到我們的思維方式中。智能手機或筆記本等物品通常與我們大腦中的突觸一樣,在功能上對我們的認知至關重要。它們通過增加我們的認知能力和釋放內(nèi)部資源來提升和擴展我們的思想。

如果被接受,那么“延伸的思想”這一論點會威脅到關于思想的不可侵犯性的廣泛文化假設,而思想的不可侵犯性是大多數(shù)法律和社會規(guī)范的核心。正如美國最高法院在1942年宣稱的:“思考的自由從本質(zhì)上來說是絕對的;最專橫的政府也無法控制思想的內(nèi)在運作?!边@種觀點起源于約翰·洛克和勒內(nèi)·笛卡爾等思想家,他們認為人的靈魂鎖在肉體中,但我們的思想存在于一個非物質(zhì)的世界,其他人無法進入。因此,人的內(nèi)心生活只有在被外在化時,比如通過言語,才需要保護。許多認知科學的研究人員仍然堅持這種笛卡爾式的觀念——只有,現(xiàn)在,思想的私人領域與大腦中的活動同時發(fā)生。

但是今天的法律制度正在全力反對這種狹隘的有關思想的理念。它們試圖去理解技術如何改變了“何為人類”,并制定出新的規(guī)范界限來應對這一現(xiàn)實。羅伯茨大法官可能并不知道“延伸的思想”這一理念,但這一理念支持了他那聽起來像是嘲諷的意見,即智能手機已經(jīng)成為我們身體的一部分。如果我們的思想現(xiàn)在包含了我們的手機,那么我們本質(zhì)上就是半機械人:部分是生物,部分是技術??紤]到我們的智能手機如何接管了我們的大腦曾經(jīng)的功能——記住日期、電話號碼、地址——或許手機中所包含的數(shù)據(jù)應該與我們大腦掌握的信息得到同等對待。因此,如果法律旨在保護精神隱私,其邊界則需向外延伸,從而給予我們的半機械體解剖結(jié)構和大腦同等的保護。

這種推理方法導致了一些潛在的極端結(jié)論。一些哲學家認為,我們死后,我們的數(shù)字設備應該作為遺骸處理:如果你的智能手機是你的一部分,那么處理你的手機時,或許應該更像是在處理你的遺體而不是你的沙發(fā)。同樣,有人可能會認為毀壞某人的智能手機應該被看做一種“延伸”的攻擊,與擊打頭部罪責相當,而不僅僅是毀壞財產(chǎn)。如果你的記憶因為有人用棍棒襲擊你而消失,那么法庭毫無疑問會將這一事件認定為暴力事件。因此,如果有人弄壞了你的智能手機并且清空了里面的內(nèi)容,那么這個罪犯應該得到與造成頭部創(chuàng)傷的罪犯同等的懲處。

“延伸的思想”這一論點也挑戰(zhàn)了法律在保護思想的內(nèi)容與途徑這兩大方面的作用——即保護我們“思考什么”和“如何思考”免受不當?shù)挠绊?。法?guī)禁止在非雙方同意的情況下干預我們的神經(jīng)化學(例如,通過藥物),因為這會干擾我們思想的內(nèi)容。但是,如果認知包含手機設備,那么按理說手機設備也同樣應該受這些禁令的保護。也許廣告客戶用來在網(wǎng)上劫持我們的注意力,影響我們的決策或是操縱搜索結(jié)果的一些技術也應該算作對我們認知過程的入侵。同樣,在法律保護思考途徑的領域,或許也需要它對智能手機等工具的獲取進行保護——正如言論自由不僅保護人們寫作或者說話的權利,也保護其使用計算機和在互聯(lián)網(wǎng)上傳播言論的權利一樣。

法院離作出這樣的決定還有一段距離。除了上頭條的特大槍擊案,每年有數(shù)千起警察試圖搜查加密設備的案例。雖然美國憲法第五修正案保護個人保持沉默的權利(因此可以不說出密碼),但有幾個州的法官裁定警察可以強行使用指紋解鎖用戶的手機。(而iPhone X 新推出的面部識別功能使得警察可能只需要讓用戶在無意識的情況下望向她的手機即可。)這些決定反映了一種傳統(tǒng)的觀念,即個人的權利和自由止于皮膚。

但是,指導我們法律機構的個人權利與自由的觀念已經(jīng)過時。這一觀念得以構建的基本模型是一個內(nèi)心生活不受外界觸及的自由個體。然而,現(xiàn)在,我們的想法甚至在還沒形成之前就可能被侵入——而且從某種程度上來說,這也許并不是什么新鮮事。物理學家、諾貝爾獎得主理查德·費曼曾經(jīng)說過,他用他的筆記本思考。沒有鋼筆和鉛筆,許多復雜的思考和分析就無法實現(xiàn)。如果“延伸的思想”這一觀點是正確的,那么即使是這些簡單的技術也應該得到認可和保護,成為思想重要的工具包中的一部分。

1. unsettling: 使人不安的;epilogue: 后記,尾聲。

2. enshrine: 使……神圣不可侵犯。

3. ubiquitous: 無處不在的;anatomy: 解剖。

4. biometric: 生物統(tǒng)計的。

5. rummage: 翻查。

6. proverbial: 諺語的,眾所周知的。

7. metaphysical: 行而上學的。

8. seamlessly: 無縫地。

9. synapse: 突觸,是一個神經(jīng)元的沖動傳到另一個神經(jīng)元或傳到另一細胞間的相互接觸的結(jié)構,是神經(jīng)元之間在功能上發(fā)生聯(lián)系的部位,也是信息傳遞的關鍵部位。

10. augment: 增大,增加。

11. inviolate: 不受侵犯的。

12. tyrannical: 專橫的,專制的。

13. John Lock: 約翰·洛克(1632—1704),英國哲學家。洛克的精神哲學理論通常被視為是現(xiàn)代主義中“本體”以及自我理論的奠基者。洛克是第一個以連續(xù)的“意識”來定義自我概念的哲學家,他也提出了心靈是一塊“白板”的假設。與笛卡爾或基督教哲學不同的是,洛克認為人生下來是不帶有任何記憶和思想的。他也在社會契約理論上作出了重要貢獻,主張政府只有在取得被統(tǒng)治者的同意,并且保障人民擁有生命、自由和財產(chǎn)的自然權利時,其統(tǒng)治才有正當性;René Descarte: 勒內(nèi)·笛卡爾(1596—1650),法國著名的哲學家、數(shù)學家、物理學家。他是西方近代哲學奠基人之一。他對現(xiàn)代數(shù)學的發(fā)展作出了重要的貢獻,因?qū)缀巫鴺梭w系公式化而被稱為“解析幾何之父”。他還是西方現(xiàn)代哲學思想的奠基人,是近代唯物論的開拓者且提出了普遍懷疑的主張。他的哲學思想深深影響了之后的幾代歐洲人,開拓了歐陸理性主義哲學。

14. Cartesian: // 笛卡爾式的。

15. strain: 盡力,竭力。

16. normative: 規(guī)范的。

17. wry: 揶揄的。

18. cyborg: 半人半機器的生物。

19. on a par with: 與……同等。

20. perpetrator: 行兇者。

21. consensual: 經(jīng)雙方同意的;meddle:干涉,插手。

22. nudge: 推動,促使。

23. disseminate: 傳播。

24. encrypt: 把……加密。

25. unwitting: 無意的,未覺察的。

26. Richard Feynman: 理查德·菲利普斯·費曼(1918—1988),美籍猶太裔物理學家,加州理工學院物理學教授,1965年諾貝爾物理獎得主。

閱讀感評

∷秋葉 評

曾聽說在現(xiàn)代空戰(zhàn)中,已經(jīng)粉身碎骨的飛行員還能將敵手置于死地,因為戰(zhàn)機被擊落前發(fā)射的巡航導彈還在空中尋找目標。還聽人說,放在停尸間遭遇意外死亡的尸首,居然身上還會有手機鈴聲響起,讓人不寒而栗。這些在過去無法想象的“奇聞逸事”,應該都是這個高科技時代的特別現(xiàn)象。當然,這些大致屬于外部影響,而在這個信息智能化的時代,技術手段正將我們帶進人機之間由外而內(nèi)、由表及里、你中有我、我中有你的交叉滲透的嶄新過程。

當前的刑偵調(diào)查使用的最重要手段是相關人的手機、電腦與監(jiān)控錄像等電子設備。這些設備無處不在,實時記錄各種信息,再通過相關的技術手段,形成完整的信息數(shù)據(jù)鏈,幾乎能還原每一個人的言行舉止的軌跡,哪怕是細枝末節(jié),都能展露無遺。如果借用《圣經(jīng)》傳道書上的一句話“There is nothing new under the sun.”(太陽底下無新鮮事)并略加變通的話,我們也許就可以說,數(shù)碼網(wǎng)絡時代沒有隱私?。═here is nothing private in the digital age!)

其實,在當前這個透明的時代,我們的思想自由和精神隱私已難有保障,更不必談神圣不可侵犯了。各種媒體與技術手段,在我們對此產(chǎn)生意識之前,早就通過海量數(shù)據(jù)收集與智能化分析工具,無孔不入并非常強勢地侵入了我們的大腦與身體。我們作為個人顯然對此無能為力。原文中說,2014年美國最高法院決定“警方必須取得搜查令才能搜查智能手機”。不管在實際執(zhí)行過程中會打多大的折扣(據(jù)美國人自己稱,911事件之后,美國政府隨時都可以國家安全為由來監(jiān)聽任何私人電話與郵件短信),這個決定算是比較及時地對當前個人無法保全自我隱私的窘境作出了應對,認識到了今天我們的手機就如同傳統(tǒng)上我們的住所,絕對應該是個“非請莫入”的城堡(A mans home is his castle),雖然手機這個“digital home”的安全性顯然遠不如我們用門窗墻壁包圍起來的家園。

早在上世紀末,由兩位哲學家撰寫的《延伸的思想》(“The Extended Mind”, 1998)就預言,鑒于這些新技術在我們生活中扮演的重要角色,工具可以與我們的思想無縫對接,它們應該像我們的大腦與身體那樣得到相同的保護。原文作者進而指出,“智能手機已經(jīng)成為我們身體(毋寧說是大腦)的一部分”,證據(jù)是“智能手機接管了我們大腦曾經(jīng)的功能——記住日期、電話號碼、地址……”,甚至認為“我們死后,我們的數(shù)字設備應該作為遺骸處理……毀壞某人的智能手機應該被看做一種‘延伸的攻擊,與擊打頭部罪責相當,而不僅僅是毀壞財產(chǎn)”。坦率地講,這些看法筆者認為太過激進,恐怕會像時裝表演秀中的那些極其夸張的服飾,幾乎不可能在現(xiàn)實生活中占據(jù)一席之地。

智能手機雖然功能日漸強大多樣,但它絕難等同于某種“人體器官”,因此對于手機的侵入(包括強行打開的物理性入侵與利用黑客手段的入侵)與侵害(包括砸碎等機械性毀壞與病毒入侵等破壞),在法律上也應該不會像對待施加于我們的人身侵犯與侵害那樣一視同仁。原文作者所認為的智能手機接管了大腦功能所負責的那幾樣,其實充其量是傳統(tǒng)上記事本的功能。當然,今日的智能手機的功能遠遠超過這些,它至少還有更重要的海量信息存儲與強大的搜索功能,對大量信息的處理歸類與編碼轉(zhuǎn)換功能(諸如近幾年發(fā)展迅猛的智能翻譯),以及越來越強大的分析歸納等邏輯思維能力。然而,這些功能再強大,從本質(zhì)上看數(shù)字化機器還僅屬于思想的載體,即便同時被賦予了邏輯思維能力,但這些能力還是基于由人類來建構的數(shù)據(jù)庫(database),其“思想”的源泉從根本上還是來自人的努力。其實也難怪,因為人的認知(human cognition)離不開人的情感或感覺(emotion or feeling),離開了情感或感覺,根本就談不上真正的“智能”,而至少從目前以及可預見的未來看,像智能手機、筆記本電腦這種工具是建構不出這個作為人類標志性的特性的。

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