魯塔·萊塔奈特/Rūta Leitanait?

尚晉 譯/Translated by SHANG Jin

無(wú)論怎樣引人注目的技術(shù)創(chuàng)新手段運(yùn)用到藍(lán)圖和工地上，有些傳統(tǒng)建筑材料都不會(huì)退出歷史的舞臺(tái)，木材就是其中之一。人們甚至?xí)⒁獾?，木材與新發(fā)明結(jié)合在一起時(shí)，會(huì)在當(dāng)代建筑上獲得越來(lái)越豐富的多樣性。因此，木材倍受建筑師青睞是由于它適合大膽、因地制宜的建筑創(chuàng)作，而住戶喜歡它是因其本身的溫暖、舒適和自然。

在立陶宛建筑的歷史長(zhǎng)河中，木材有著令人信服的地位，對(duì)于一個(gè)反復(fù)提出的問(wèn)題尤其如此，“如果說(shuō)我們擁有的一切幾乎都是從西歐抄襲和改造來(lái)的巴洛克、蘇聯(lián)巨構(gòu)建筑和典型項(xiàng)目以及千篇一律的玻璃摩天樓，那什么才是立陶宛的本土建筑？”在追溯立陶宛建筑特色起源的道路上，若是忽視了民族木建筑、木莊園以及數(shù)百年來(lái)改變了立陶宛景觀和城市風(fēng)貌的公共建筑和住宅，那就是不可饒恕的。

立陶宛各時(shí)期和各類型木建筑的特色是什么？文化、環(huán)境、社會(huì)因素和技術(shù)的發(fā)展給木建筑的演變帶來(lái)了怎樣的影響？木材在立陶宛當(dāng)代建筑中作為建筑材料和審美手段的情況如何？

本文簡(jiǎn)要地介紹了立陶宛木建筑不同尋常的多樣性，并考察了木建筑最具代表性、最獨(dú)特的實(shí)例。

在研究者克里斯蒂娜·施陶佩特看來(lái)，立陶宛一直是以森林著稱的。在歷史上的各個(gè)時(shí)期，立陶宛的林地面積占比為20%～55%，適宜的氣候條件形成了大量闊葉林和針葉林。選擇木材作為建筑材料是因?yàn)槿鄙偈募捌渌线m的建筑材料。與歐洲其他地方的趨勢(shì)不同，立陶宛在13世紀(jì)成為獨(dú)立國(guó)家之初，木建筑就是主流。木材被用于防御工事、住宅和宗教建筑。后來(lái)隨著城鎮(zhèn)的擴(kuò)張和國(guó)家經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況的改善出現(xiàn)了大量磚建筑。

20世紀(jì)之前的大部分木建筑，都是由非專業(yè)人士設(shè)計(jì)和建造的。由于木作傳統(tǒng)流傳廣泛，并且這種藝術(shù)和工藝代代相傳，所以不乏能造出高品質(zhì)建筑的專家：幾乎每個(gè)男人都會(huì)木工。立陶宛各地最古老的木建筑（民族特色農(nóng)場(chǎng)、村莊和歷史最久的教堂）在表達(dá)上各有千秋。不過(guò)，隨著時(shí)間的流逝，新的建筑技術(shù)出現(xiàn)，各種時(shí)尚開(kāi)始席卷全國(guó)。

1薩莫吉希亞農(nóng)場(chǎng)，卡特那村/A samogitian homestead,Kartena village （圖片來(lái)源/Source: 立陶宛露天博物館/Open-air Museum of Lithuania）

2奧克施泰提亞的村落/A Village in Auk?taitija（攝影/Photo:OAML）

3蘇瓦凱加一個(gè)有取水井的谷倉(cāng)/Suvalkija, a thrashing barn and a well with a sweep（圖片來(lái)源/Source: Vinksupiai Vil, Sakiai Reg.）

時(shí)間與不利的歷史變遷（戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)、火災(zāi)、工業(yè)化）摧毀了立陶宛大部分木建筑遺產(chǎn)。20世紀(jì)下半葉，歷史記憶的延續(xù)暫時(shí)被截?cái)啵窘ㄖ膫鹘y(tǒng)近乎消失，木建筑也不再流行。

如今在立陶宛，木建筑遺產(chǎn)作為立陶宛文化和特色的重要組成部分，正在國(guó)家和地方各層面的計(jì)劃以及歐盟的資助下進(jìn)行復(fù)興。盡管如此，修復(fù)木建筑遺產(chǎn)并進(jìn)行保護(hù)是非常昂貴的。除此之外，能完成歷史木建筑高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)修復(fù)的技術(shù)人才也十分短缺。

民族建筑（基于拉莎·貝爾塔希烏特博士 文）

在立陶宛，鄉(xiāng)村文化直到二戰(zhàn)以前都是主流。80%的人住在農(nóng)村，延續(xù)著木作數(shù)百年的傳統(tǒng)。全國(guó)各地有著形形色色的建筑，其差別不僅在于體積和比例，還有施工和建造的技術(shù)。

農(nóng)場(chǎng)是農(nóng)作的一個(gè)單位，它包括一小塊土地和住宅，以及所有的農(nóng)房、院子、花園、果園和小型建筑。在歷史的長(zhǎng)河中涌現(xiàn)出各種精心設(shè)計(jì)的農(nóng)場(chǎng)建筑。

立陶宛西部的特色在于不經(jīng)規(guī)劃的村莊（有最古老的建筑）星羅棋布，阡陌交通，漫山遍野。薩莫吉希亞地區(qū)（圖1）的農(nóng)場(chǎng)十分寬敞，2～3個(gè)院子，幾汪池水，郁郁蔥蔥。在農(nóng)場(chǎng)中間，最重要的建筑包圍著主院：住宅、糧倉(cāng)、地窖。在院子中間曾有一棵百年橡樹(shù)，后來(lái)改成一個(gè)裝飾性的木十字架或木柱龕。這座住宅將典型的院子與農(nóng)家院隔開(kāi)。牲口棚略遠(yuǎn)，而打谷倉(cāng)、谷棚和干草倉(cāng)更遠(yuǎn)。

在這座住宅的中央曾有一個(gè)開(kāi)放式灶臺(tái)。1000年前，牲口在冬天會(huì)和主人一起住在屋里。薩莫吉希亞的新型住宅里保留了開(kāi)放式灶臺(tái)，隨著時(shí)間的變遷成了住宅中間寬大的封閉煙囪。

奧克施泰提亞（東立陶宛，圖2）的村莊大多有一條街道貫穿其中，各家都有一條狹長(zhǎng)的土地。這源于16世紀(jì)西歐村莊的模式。由于地塊狹長(zhǎng)，建筑布局必須盡可能方便、經(jīng)濟(jì)。地塊的形狀規(guī)整，相互并列成排，街道兩側(cè)均有建筑：住宅和谷倉(cāng)在一側(cè)，外屋在另一側(cè)。

19世紀(jì)末以前的奧克施泰提亞住宅保留了簡(jiǎn)單的結(jié)構(gòu)，由3個(gè)大小相似的空間組成。家庭的日常生活在有采暖的主空間，住宅的另一端留給客人。這兩部分都可以由無(wú)采暖的中央門廊到達(dá)。直到19世紀(jì)中葉，大多數(shù)住宅都沒(méi)有煙囪，開(kāi)放的爐中冒出的煙熏著住戶。

20世紀(jì)之交，這些村莊被分解為一個(gè)個(gè)農(nóng)場(chǎng)。在蘇瓦凱加（西南地區(qū)，圖3），建筑圍著寬敞的長(zhǎng)方形院子布置。這個(gè)院子又被柵欄分為典型區(qū)和工作區(qū)。這里有果園和花園，院子中間有一口井，牲口棚旁邊還有一個(gè)水池。農(nóng)場(chǎng)有若干排樹(shù)。立陶宛人不喜歡嚴(yán)整的形式，所以在農(nóng)場(chǎng)的布置上會(huì)努力追求個(gè)性。即使在按長(zhǎng)方形平面新建的農(nóng)場(chǎng)上也經(jīng)常能看到不規(guī)則排布的建筑，或是隨意布局的綠植。

立陶宛農(nóng)場(chǎng)的主要特征是良好的空間組織。主院周圍是大小相似的建筑。更大的建筑蓋在較遠(yuǎn)的地方，以避免侵占院子的空間。小的外屋圍著一個(gè)較小的院子。這種大小比例營(yíng)造出許多怡人的空間。

住宅有5～10個(gè)房間。最重要的房間位于建筑的各端，而在中部靠近廚房和門廊的地方增加了更多房間。它們往往還有一個(gè)通向室外的獨(dú)立出口。20世紀(jì)初，富農(nóng)的住宅還有一個(gè)帶加高閣樓、夾層和兩層前廳的芒薩屋。農(nóng)宅的平面幾乎為正方形，并逐漸接近城市住宅。

村莊最主要的變化發(fā)生在二戰(zhàn)后。農(nóng)民被迫遷入集體農(nóng)村宿舍，而古老的村莊和家庭經(jīng)營(yíng)的農(nóng)場(chǎng)被破壞。極少數(shù)農(nóng)場(chǎng)得以幸存，而那些都在森林或不適合農(nóng)業(yè)的偏遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)。目前《遺產(chǎn)名錄》中有43座村莊和受保護(hù)的個(gè)體農(nóng)場(chǎng)及其建筑。

No matter what impressive technological innovations take on the blueprints and construction sites, some of the traditional construction materials do not concede their positions; wood being one of them. One could even notice that wood, combined with new inventions, gains more and more versatility in contemporary architecture. Therefore, wood is preferred by the architects because its suitability for bold architectural improvisations and, by the users – because of inherent warmth, cosiness, and naturalness.

In the context of history of Lithuanian architecture, wood has a cogent role. Especially, when it comes to a repeated question: "What is indigenous Lithuanian architecture, if almost everything we have is copied and altered baroque from Western Europe,soviet megastructures and typical projects and uniform glass skyscrapers? "While searching for the origins of the identity of Lithuanian architecture, it would be irremissible to ignore ethnographic wooden architecture, wooden manors, public and residential buildings which evolution gradually altered landscape and cityscape of Lithuania through the past centuries.

What feature are characteristic of Lithuanian wooden building of various periods and types?What influence did cultural, environmental, social factors and the evolution of technology have on the changes in wooden architecture? What is the status of wood, as construction material and aesthetic tool, in Lithuanian contemporary architecture?

This article presents in a concise manner the extraordinary variety of wooden architecture in Lithuania, examining the most characteristic and most distinctive examples of wooden architecture.

According to a researcher Kristina ?taupait?,Lithuania has always been known for its forests. At different periods in its history, Lithuania's wooded land surface has ranged from 20% to 55%. Favourable climatic conditions allowed the formation of broadleaved and coniferous forests. The choice of wood as a building material was determined by the lack of stone and other suitable material for construction.Differently from the tendency in other parts of Europe, in Lithuania from the very beginnings as an independent state in the 13th century wooden architecture was dominant, wood being used for the construction of defensive, residential and sacral buildings. Brick buildings began to proliferate later,with the expansion of towns and an improvement in the state's financial circumstances.

The greater part of wooden architecture up to the 20th century was designed and built by non-professionals. Since the traditions of wooden construction were especially widespread and this art and craft was handed down from generation to generation, there was no shortage of specialists able to build buildings of a high quality: almost every man knew how to work with wood. The expressions of the oldest wooden architecture (on ethnographic farmsteads, in the villages, and the oldest churches)in the various regions of Lithuania were different.However, with the passage of time, newer building technologies, one might say - fashions, began to spread throughout all of the country.

Time and unfavourable historical changes (wars,fires, industrialisation) destroyed most of Lithuania's heritage of wooden architecture. In the second half of the 20th century, occupation, the development of historical memory was curtailed, the traditions of wooden architecture almost died out, and the popularity of wooden architecture declined.

Today in Lithuania, the heritage of wooden architecture, as a significant part of the culture and identity of Lithuania, is being revived by means of various programmes on a state and local level, as well as with the support of EU funds. All the same,restoring the heritage of wooden architecture and protecting it is expensive, and, besides that, there is a shortage of skilled people, able to restore the historical wooden buildings to a high standard.

Ethnographic architecture (based on the text by Dr. Rasa Berta?iūt?)

In Lithuania up to World War II rural culture dominated with about 80% of the population living in the countryside and maintaining the centuriesold tradition of wooden construction. Specific types of buildings emerged in various parts of the country,differing not only in their volume, proportions, but also in their construction and building technology.

A farmstead is a farming unit, comprised of a plot of land together with the residential house and all the farm buildings, yards, gardens, orchards and smallscale architecture. In the flow of history various types of planned farmstead structures developed.

Characteristic of West Lithuania were the villages(the oldest in their structure) that without any plan came to be dotted haphazardly throughout the region with an irregular network of streets and farmsteads freely spread out in the landscape. In Samogitia region(Fig. 1), the farmsteads were spacious, with 2-3 yards,several ponds, and with abundant greenery. In the centre of the farmstead around the main yard the most important buildings were located: the residential house, the barns, cellars. In the middle of the yard there would have been a hundred-year-old oak tree which was later replaced by a decorative wooden cross or a wooden column shrine. The residential house separated the representative yard from the farmyard. The animal sheds were set at a distance, and the threshing barns together with sheds and the hay barns were set further away.

In the centre of the house there used to be an open hearth. Ten centuries ago, during the winters,animals would live in the house together with their masters. In the newer type of house in Samogitia the open hearth survived, which over time became a spacious closed chimney in the centre of the house.

In Auk?taitija (East Lithuania, Fig. 2) villages with a single street running through it and a narrow strip of land belonging to each family predominated,copying the model of 16th century Western European villages. The plots were narrow and the buildings had to be laid out as conveniently and economically as possible. The plots of land were of a regular shape and were positioned in rows next to one another with the buildings on both sides of the street: the residential houses and barns on one side and the outbuildings on the other.

The residential house in Auk?taitija up to the end of the 19th century preserved the simple structure,consisting of three similar sized spaces. The everyday life of the family took in the main heated space, the other end of the house was set aside for guests. One could access both parts through the unheated central porch. Up to the middle of the 19th century most of the houses had no chimney, bathing the residents in a smoke, coming from an open furnace.

A r o u n d t h e t u r n o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y, t h e

v i l l a g e s w e r e b r o k e n u p i n t o i n d i v i d u a l f a r m s t e a d s.I n S u v a l k i j a (S o u t h W e s t r e g i o n, F i g. 3), t h e b u i l d i n g s w e r e p o s i t i o n e d a r o u n d a s p a c i o u s r e c t a n g u l a r y a r d,w h i c h w a s d i v i d e d i n t o t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a n d w o r k z o n e s b y f e n c e s. A n o r c h a r d a n d f l o w e r g a r d e n w e r e p l a n t e d, a w e l l d u g i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e y a r d, a n d t h e r e w a s a p o n d b y a n a n i m a l s h e d. A f a r m s t e a d w o u l d h a v e s e v e r a l r o w s o f t r e e s. L i t h u a n i a n s d i d n o t l i k e s t r i c t l y r e g u l a r f o r m s, s o i n l a y i n g o u t a f a r m s t e a d t h e r e w a s a s t r i v i n g f o r i n d i v i d u a l i t y. E v e n i n t h e n e w f a r m s t e a d s b u i l t t o a r e c t a n g u l a r p l a n, o n e c o u l d o f t e n s e e f a r m b u i l d i n g s l a i d o u t i n i r r e g u l a r l y o r g r e e n e r y p l a n t e d t o a l o o s e p a t t e r n.

莊園建筑（基于達(dá)萊·普如凱尼內(nèi)博士文）

在近500年的歷史中 （從15世紀(jì)-20世紀(jì)初），莊園都是立陶宛政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)和文化活動(dòng)的樞紐，而莊園農(nóng)業(yè)是經(jīng)濟(jì)的基礎(chǔ)。受過(guò)良好教育、躊躇滿志的自由貴族統(tǒng)治著國(guó)家，他們是公共和宗教建筑的委托項(xiàng)目和資金的主要負(fù)責(zé)人。通過(guò)莊園，技術(shù)創(chuàng)新、進(jìn)步的建造技術(shù)和全球性建筑思想傳到了國(guó)家最遙遠(yuǎn)的地方。這些創(chuàng)新與當(dāng)?shù)貍鹘y(tǒng)融合在一起，成為立陶宛特色的組成部分，并影響了城鄉(xiāng)文化。

貴族占人口的6%～7%，目前立陶宛約有4000處莊園。由于木頭作為建筑材料十分方便、廉價(jià)而且易得（從莊園所屬的森林中）， 木建筑就成了主流。莊園木建筑在17世紀(jì)中葉達(dá)到黃金時(shí)代，建造它們的是顯赫的地主和國(guó)王。然而，立陶宛在17～20世紀(jì)失去了其最早、尤為豐富而有原創(chuàng)性的木遺產(chǎn)。

通常莊園位于優(yōu)美的自然環(huán)境中。大的莊園最多曾有40座建筑。最大的莊園有果園，最有錢的貴族會(huì)在莊園所屬的小鎮(zhèn)或村莊建造教堂（帶家族陵墓）。

主要建筑上的細(xì)節(jié)達(dá)到了無(wú)以復(fù)加的地步。領(lǐng)主府、仆人房、糧倉(cāng)、藏寶室、廚房、地窖或冰窖，以及馬廄——都代表著主人的財(cái)富。房前的開(kāi)敞空間突出了住宅的顯赫地位，從18世紀(jì)末起又裝點(diǎn)了花池或花圃。

室內(nèi)外裝飾風(fēng)格以巴洛克時(shí)期、19世紀(jì)的新古典主義和折中主義的全球性建筑風(fēng)格為主。

19世紀(jì)末，最大的一批莊園被改造為進(jìn)步農(nóng)場(chǎng)；然而，1863年的起義及后續(xù)的社會(huì)變革導(dǎo)致小貴族走向貧窮。1926年的土地改革加快了變賣莊園，并遷入城市的步伐。1940年代，莊園及其文化環(huán)境遭到廢棄。

如今莊園木建筑正經(jīng)歷著復(fù)興。國(guó)家和私人業(yè)主將它們修復(fù)，并按當(dāng)代需求進(jìn)行改造。不過(guò)，木建筑依然沒(méi)有得到像磚建筑一樣的重視。

宗教建筑（基于克里斯蒂娜·施陶佩特 文）

立陶宛宗教建筑只能從它成為天主教國(guó)家的1387年后談起。最早的木教堂形象非常樸素，并模仿磚建筑的特征。專業(yè)和民間建筑之間的區(qū)別一目了然。事實(shí)上，民族特色和當(dāng)時(shí)的本土精神在民間建筑上表現(xiàn)得最為突出。教堂的建造者大多不為人知，而贊助人和建筑工程負(fù)責(zé)人卻名垂青史。

今天立陶宛保留著265座木教堂。最古老的建于17世紀(jì)下半葉，而木教堂的黃金時(shí)代是18世紀(jì)。當(dāng)時(shí)89%在建的教堂都是木建筑。

立陶宛有兩個(gè)民族地區(qū)最能看到特別的建筑特征。在薩莫吉希亞（立陶宛西北部）可以看到一系列原汁原味的巴洛克風(fēng)格木教堂。它們都屬于殿堂型，單中殿，接近希臘十字形；有高高的雙坡頂，與墻等高。雄偉的表達(dá)形式和碩大的比例是巴洛克教堂的典型特征，主立面上有許多小塔，還有側(cè)廊和屋頂?shù)闹醒霗M檔（圖4）。在奧克施泰提亞（立陶宛東北部），教堂是按拉丁十字平面建造的，有一個(gè)或3個(gè)中殿，屋頂要矮得多。它們的形象更加輕盈，主立面更窄，通常進(jìn)行垂直劃分，而在室內(nèi)有前廳和唱詩(shī)區(qū)。

教堂的室外以實(shí)用和質(zhì)樸為特征，而室內(nèi)的巴洛克風(fēng)格造型則讓人驚嘆不已。室內(nèi)布置著絢爛多彩的繪畫(huà)。中間華麗的巴洛克——洛可可風(fēng)格祭壇上滿是絢爛的鏤雕，深受世人喜愛(ài)。

19世紀(jì)，立陶宛大部分領(lǐng)土都被沙俄占領(lǐng)，教堂的資金支持因意識(shí)形態(tài)而枯竭，木教堂的數(shù)量也隨之減少。由于工廠制造的零件和加工材料的使用，民族差異也被消除了。

20世紀(jì)之交發(fā)生了劇變。社會(huì)意識(shí)改變，務(wù)農(nóng)人員的生活得到改善，專業(yè)化建造的磚教堂開(kāi)始取代木教堂。老教堂被拆除，新的磚建筑取而代之。20世紀(jì)木教堂的困境成了難題。二戰(zhàn)后，立陶宛并入蘇聯(lián)，教堂在社會(huì)中的地位一落千丈。許多教堂因利用不當(dāng)、保護(hù)不力，原真性遭到嚴(yán)重破壞。

然而，還有一些獨(dú)具特色的木宗教典型建筑得以保存。其中之一就是內(nèi)馬朱奈圣使徒彼得和保羅教堂（圖5）。這座帶有鮮明新哥特造型的木教堂是浪漫主義時(shí)代藝術(shù)思想的代表。專業(yè)的工匠根據(jù)建筑師托馬什·蒂謝茨基的設(shè)計(jì)建造了這座教堂。室內(nèi)是由當(dāng)?shù)氐窨碳液退囆g(shù)家布置的，所以本土風(fēng)格元素顯而易見(jiàn)。長(zhǎng)方形的平面源于古典主義傳統(tǒng)。圣壇上方巨大的穹頂、帶雙塔的主立面和室內(nèi)則呼應(yīng)著巴洛克傳統(tǒng)。在立陶宛浪漫主義時(shí)期，新哥特式磚建筑大行其道，并衍生出多種形式。但就木建筑而言，這座教堂是現(xiàn)存的孤例。

4 普拉特利艾圣使徒彼得和保羅教堂/The Plateliai Church of the Holy Apostilles Peter and Paul

5內(nèi)馬朱奈圣使徒彼得和保羅教堂/The Nemajūnai Church of the Holy Apostilles Peter and Paul

6格里什卡布迪斯顯圣教堂/The Gri?kabūdis Churches of the Transfiguration（4-6攝影/Photos: Arvydas Kumpis, 線圖/Plans: From the book A. Jankeviciene, Lithuanian wooden churhes, chapels and bell towers）

格里什卡布迪斯顯圣教堂（圖6）是立陶宛僅存的按古典主義傳統(tǒng)建成的多邊形木教堂。它是一個(gè)寬大的八邊形，帶長(zhǎng)方形的門廊和環(huán)柱廊——圣器室，側(cè)邊還有許多小禮拜堂。八邊形的觀景樓立在金字塔形的屋頂和附屬樓上。主立面上有四根多立克柱的門廊，墻上裝飾著彩畫(huà)——立陶宛僅存的實(shí)例。大量新古典主義建筑元素是通過(guò)幻象和彩畫(huà)來(lái)表現(xiàn)的。室內(nèi)因最令人難忘的一個(gè)歷史主義時(shí)期祭壇組熠熠生輝——5座新古典主義和新巴洛克風(fēng)格祭壇。另一側(cè)是精美的巴洛克晚期和洛可可風(fēng)格的風(fēng)琴（1804），這是立陶宛該時(shí)期最珍貴的樂(lè)器。

The main feature of Lithuanian farmsteads was the good organisation of space. The main yard had buildings of a similar size positioned around it. Larger buildings were built a little further away in order not to encroach on the yard space. The small outbuildings were clustered around a smaller yard. This size ratio created spaces of a pleasant aspect.

The residential house consisted of 5-10 rooms.The most important rooms were located at the ends of the building, while in the central part, next to the kitchen and porch, more rooms were added, often with a separate exit to the outside. At the beginning of the 20th century the houses of wealthy peasants were added a mansard room with a heightened loft, a mezzanine, and a two-storey antechamber. The plan of a rural dwelling became almost square in shape and gradually began to resemble a city residence.

The most significant changes in the villages took place after World War II. With the peasants forced to move to the collective farm settlements, the old villages and family-run farms were destroyed. Very few farmsteads survived, and those were the ones in forests or in out of the way locations, inconvenient for agriculture. At present in the List of Heritage Properties there are 43 villages, as well as protected and individual farmsteads together with their buildings.

Manor architecture (based on the text by Dr. Dal? Puod?iukien?)

For almost five centuries (15th to the beginning of the 20th c.) the manor was the hub around which Lithuania's political, economic and cultural activities revolved, with manorial agriculture being the basis of the economy. Free, well-educated and ambitious noblemen ruled the State and were in the main responsible for the commissioning and funding of public and sacral buildings. It was through the manor estates that technical innovations, progressive building techniques and cosmopolitan architectural ideas reached the furthest outposts of the country.Those innovations, mingled with local traditions,became an integral part of Lithuania's identity and influenced rural and urban culture.

The nobility made up about 6%-7% of the population. There were about 4000 estates on the current territory of Lithuania and since wood as a building material was convenient, cheap and easily obtainable (from the woods that belonged to the manors), timber buildings dominated. Wooden manorial architecture reached its golden age in the middle of the 17th century, when they were built by important landlords and the king. However, the earliest, particularly rich and original wooden heritage of Lithuania was lost during 17th-20th centuries.

Usually the manors were located in a beautiful natural environment. Large estates used to have up to 40 buildings. The biggest estates had an orchard, and the richest noblemen used to build a church (with a family mausoleum) in the small town or village that belonged to the manor.

The main buildings were built with the utmost attention to detail. The residence of a lord, the house for servants, the granaries, treasure-house, kitchen,cellar or icehouse, and the stables – they all represented the wealth of the owners. The importance of the residential house was accentuated by a open space in the front of it, which, from the end of the 18th century,was adorned with flower-beds or a parterre.

The cosmopolitan architectural styles of the Baroque period, Neoclassicism and the eclectic styles of the 19th century were dominant in both exterior and interior décor.

At the end of 19th century, the largest manors were transformed into progressive farms; however,the 1863 uprising and the social transformations of that followed resulted in the impoverishment of smaller noblemen. The tendency of selling the manors and moving to the cities was accelerated by the land reform of 1926. The 1940s the Soviet government swept away the intelligentsia and the landlords;therefore the manors and their cultural environment were abandoned.

Today wooden manor buildings are experiencing a renaissance. The state and private owners are restoring and adapting them to contemporary needs.However, wooden buildings still do not get as much attention as brick ones.

Sacred architecture (based on the text by Kristina ?taupait?)

One can only talk about Lithuanian sacral architecture from 1387 when Lithuania became a Catholic country. The first wooden churches were aesthetically simple, replicating the features of brick churches. The differences between professional and folk architecture could be plainly seen. As it happens, it is in folk architecture that ethnographical characteristics and the local spirit of the time are best revealed. The church builders themselves most often remained unknown, the patrons and persons in charge of the building work being mentioned in the records.

Today there are 265 wooden churches left in Lithuania. The eldest ones were built in the second half of the 17th c., but the golden age of wooden churches was the 18th century. At that time, 89% of all the churches being built were wooden.

There are two ethnographical regions in Lithuania where specific architectural features can be best discerned. In Samogitia (the north-western part of Lithuania) one can find an entire network of authentic wooden Baroque-style churches. All of them are of the hall type, with a single nave, almost of a Greek cross form with a high two-pitch or hip roof, level with the height of the walls. A monumental expression and massive proportions were typical of Baroque churches, featuring small towers above the main facade, the side naves and the roof's central crosspiece (Fig. 4). In Auk?taitija (the north-eastern part of Lithuania), the churches were built according to the Latin cross plan, with one or three naves and a considerably less high roof. They were lighter in appearance, the main facades narrower, quite often vertically divided, while inside one had an antenave and choir areas.

The exterior of the churches was characterised by function and modesty, while the interior amazed one with impressive Baroque-style forms. The interior was decorated with colourful painting. Imposing central altars of a Baroque-Rococo-style composition,abundantly enriched by flamboyant, openwork carvings, were popular.

In the 19th century, with the greater part of the territory of Lithuania under the occupation of the Tsarist Russian Empire financial support for churches waned for ideological reasons, and the number of wooden churches declined accordingly. Because of the use of factory-manufactured parts and processed materials, there was a levelling-out of ethnographical differences.

Huge transformations took place at the turn of the 20th century when with a change in the mentality of society and with improvements in the lives of people working in the agricultural sector,professionally-built brick churches began to displace wooden ones. The old churches were demolished and replaced by new ones in brick. The predicament of wooden churches in the 20th century was problematic. After World War II, when Lithuania was annexed by the USSR, the role of the Church in society was seriously diminished. A great deal of harm was done to the authenticity of the churches because of their inappropriate use and the failure to protect them properly.

However, there are several unique examples of wooden sacral architecture preserved. One of those is the Nemajūnai Church of the Holy Apostilles Peter and Paul (Fig. 5). The wooden church with expressive neo-Gothic forms became the embodiment of the artistic ideas of the epoch of Romanticism.Professional craftsmen built the church according to the project by the architect Tomasz Tyszecki, while the interior was fitted out by local sculptors and artists, therefore elements of indigenous décor are obvious. The rectangular plan was created according to traditions of Classicism, whereas the substantial cupola above the presbytery, the main two-tower facade and the interior echo the traditions of the Baroque. During the epoch of Romanticism in Lithuania examples of brick neo-Gothicism were very widespread and took on various forms but as regards wooden architecture this church is the sole such object still surviving.

19-20世紀(jì)城市中的住宅和公共建筑（基于英格麗達(dá)·韋柳特，阿斯塔·拉什凱維丘捷博士 文）

不少常見(jiàn)的類型或城市木建筑都是不同凡響的。比如城市住宅：通常以側(cè)立面臨街，一層高，按長(zhǎng)向住宅設(shè)計(jì)建造，上為雙坡錫屋頂。主人住在房子的一部分里，并將其他部分出租。

農(nóng)場(chǎng)類住宅也建在小鎮(zhèn)中，并延伸到郊區(qū)，吸收在鄉(xiāng)村為主流的民間建筑傳統(tǒng)。它們與街道距離更遠(yuǎn)，有花園，通常只住一戶。這些單層的長(zhǎng)方形住宅有時(shí)會(huì)加高，以便做出夾層和帶芒薩頂?shù)拈w樓，以及帶玻璃窗的涼廊。

在更大的城鎮(zhèn)里，帶4個(gè)或更多出租屋的公寓開(kāi)始涌現(xiàn)。它們通常為2層，呈長(zhǎng)方形，雙坡頂，幾乎沒(méi)有裝飾，有時(shí)帶玻璃門廊和陽(yáng)臺(tái)。

在自然環(huán)抱之中的更大城鎮(zhèn)，其郊區(qū)在不斷拓展，特別是溫泉小鎮(zhèn)。它們引以為豪的別墅以豐富多樣的建筑方案而聞名（圖7）。這些別墅往往都造型不對(duì)稱，有小塔樓、涼廊、門廊、斷口芒薩頂、用于裝飾的風(fēng)格化渦卷，以及小塔樓亮麗的盔型蓋頂。沙俄建筑對(duì)維爾紐斯別墅的建造產(chǎn)生了最大的影響，波蘭扎科帕內(nèi)風(fēng)格的元素在一戰(zhàn)后廣為流傳。這里還能發(fā)現(xiàn)摩爾風(fēng)格和立陶宛民間建筑的元素。在德魯斯基寧凱的溫泉小鎮(zhèn)還可以看到俄國(guó)、瑞士、波蘭及其他歐洲溫泉的影響。在考納斯，國(guó)家風(fēng)格是舉足輕重的，而在克萊佩達(dá)地區(qū)可以看出德國(guó)建筑的傳統(tǒng)。

更為復(fù)雜的形式通常出現(xiàn)在小莊園建筑上（圖8）。另一方面，避暑別墅更為簡(jiǎn)單，適應(yīng)度假者的各種需求，并拋棄了奇異的裝飾。在溫泉度假地，最重要的公共聚集場(chǎng)所就是用于休閑的療養(yǎng)院（溫泉小鎮(zhèn)的主要建筑，圖9）。

很多木建筑的布局都很簡(jiǎn)單，它的圖紙是由所謂的“繪圖員”完成的。不過(guò)，也有著名建筑師設(shè)計(jì)的項(xiàng)目。

7建筑師費(fèi)利克薩斯·維茲巴拉斯1932年為作曲家尤奧扎斯·格魯奧迪斯設(shè)計(jì)的別墅圖/ The composer Juozas Gruodis villa by architect Feliksas Vizbaras, 1932（攝影/Photo: I.Veliute）

8瓦茨洛瓦斯·米赫涅維丘斯住宅/Vaclovas Michnevi?ius House（攝影/Photo: A.Raskeviciute）

10奧德留斯·安布拉薩斯建筑事務(wù)所設(shè)計(jì)的魯珀特藝術(shù)教育中心，2013年建造，建筑師奧德留斯·安布拉薩斯，維爾馬·阿多莫尼特，明道加斯·雷克萊蒂斯/ Rupert Art and Education centre by Audrius Ambrasas architects, 2013,arch. Audrius Ambrasas, Vilma Adomonyt?, Mindaugas Reklaitis（攝影/Photo: 奧德留斯·安布拉薩斯建筑事務(wù)所/Audrius Ambrasas Architects

11金陶塔斯·納特克維丘斯事務(wù)所設(shè)計(jì)的烏特里艾住宅，2006年建造，建筑師金陶塔斯·納特克維丘斯，里馬斯·阿多邁蒂斯，雷蒙達(dá)斯·巴布勞斯卡斯/House in Utriai by G. Natkevicius & Co, 2006, arch. Gintautas Natkevi?ius,Rimas Adomaitis, Raimundas Babrauskas（攝影/Photo:R.Urbakavi?iaus）

12阿克 吐里建筑 事務(wù)所設(shè) 計(jì)的維爾 紐斯住 宅，2013年建 造，建筑師米 爾達(dá)·雷 克維米契 內(nèi)，阿爾 達(dá)·蒂 爾維凱特 ，盧卡斯·雷克 維丘斯/House in Vilnius by Aketuri architektai, 2013,arch. Milda Rekevi?ien?, Alda Tilvikait?, Lukas Rekevi?ius（攝影/Photo: Norbert Tukaj）

13奧德留斯·安布拉薩斯建筑事務(wù)所設(shè)計(jì)的別墅G，2014年建造，建筑師奧德留斯·安布拉薩斯，維爾馬·阿多莫尼特，達(dá)留斯·尤斯克維丘斯/Villa G by Audrius Ambrasas architects, 2014,arch. Audrius Ambrasas, Vilma Adomonyte, Darius Juskevicius.

14Arches事務(wù)所設(shè)計(jì)的納克奇季比斯度假屋，2010年建造，建筑師阿納斯·利奧拉，羅蘭達(dá)斯·利奧拉，埃德加·涅斯基斯，留陶拉斯·內(nèi)克羅修斯，盧卡斯·拉任斯卡斯/Resort Nakci?ibis by Arches, 2010, arch. Arūnas Liola,Rolandas Liola, Edgaras Neni?kis, Liutauras Nekro?ius, Lukas La?inskas （攝影/Photo: R.Urbakavi?iaus）

15Erdv?s norma事務(wù)所設(shè)計(jì)的“海、沙、風(fēng)”別墅，2009年建造，建筑師金特拉斯·普里科基斯，阿斯塔·普里科基耶涅，因加·蒂奎塞特，安德留斯·韋盧蒂斯；木窗花藝術(shù)家：馬里烏斯·約努蒂斯/The Villa"Sea. Sand. Wind" by Erdv?s norma, 2009,arch. Gintras Prikockis, Asta Prikockiene, Inga Tikuisyte, Andrius Velutis; wooden tracery artist: Marius Jonutis（攝影/Photo:Simonas Prikockis）

當(dāng)代建筑

在立陶宛建筑中使用木材，從1990年代再度流行起來(lái)。木材，在歷史上曾作為廉價(jià)、方便的材料用來(lái)快速建造房屋，而在當(dāng)代建筑中又呈現(xiàn)出多樣化的形象。

在立陶宛1990年恢復(fù)獨(dú)立并歸還私有財(cái)產(chǎn)之后，很多立陶宛人都?jí)粝氤烧媪恕獡碛幸蛔鶐恋氐莫?dú)戶住宅。對(duì)蘇聯(lián)時(shí)期破壞家園環(huán)境的行徑感到厭倦的人們，在為自家的個(gè)性和舒適努力，而這通常離不開(kāi)傳統(tǒng)建筑的形式和自然材料。建筑中的木材（尤其是完成面）越來(lái)越受歡迎。

在當(dāng)代專業(yè)化建筑上，木材不再被視為最廉價(jià)的材料，而被用來(lái)打造與眾不同的形象和高品質(zhì)的環(huán)境（圖10）。因此，木材的外觀和耐久度愈發(fā)重要。材料的質(zhì)量及其加工方式，還有營(yíng)造和建筑方案的精細(xì)施工越來(lái)越受重視。木材通常用于可見(jiàn)的位置，在完成面和裝修上（其他材料主要用于施工，圖11）。木材是一種千變?nèi)f化的材料，并在最新的立陶宛建筑中創(chuàng)造出一種當(dāng)代形象（圖12），而使用木材的新技術(shù)（如膠合板）更有助于表達(dá)的多樣化（圖13）。

當(dāng)代立陶宛建筑師作品的特點(diǎn)之一是關(guān)注并尊重文脈。大部分當(dāng)代木建筑出現(xiàn)在木材紋理和色彩可與之融為一體的自然環(huán)境中并非巧合（圖14）。使用傳統(tǒng)材料的靈感不僅源于自然——木材被用在希望與傳統(tǒng)建筑相結(jié)合的地方（圖15）。由于天然的特性和“暖人”的形象，木材在娛樂(lè)設(shè)施上備受青睞。

□（本文中的信息和圖片出自展覽“立陶宛建筑之木”。該展覽在立陶宛文化委員會(huì)的支持下，由立陶宛建筑師協(xié)會(huì)主辦（策展：魯塔·萊塔奈特）。展覽作者：拉薩·貝爾塔希烏特博士（民族建筑：村莊、農(nóng)場(chǎng)）、達(dá)萊·普如凱尼內(nèi)博士（莊園）、克里斯蒂娜·施陶佩特（宗教建筑）、英格麗達(dá)·韋柳特和阿斯塔·拉什凱維丘捷博士（19世紀(jì)至20世紀(jì)初立陶宛城鎮(zhèn)木建筑）、魯塔·萊塔奈特（立陶宛當(dāng)代木建筑）。對(duì)于本文中所用的圖片，我們致謝：立陶宛露天博物館、考納斯市博物館、總檔案員辦公室、維爾紐斯大學(xué)圖書(shū)館、手稿部、肖利艾·奧施洛斯博物館、立陶宛莊園數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)、文化遺產(chǎn)中心、遺產(chǎn)保護(hù)圖書(shū)館。建筑師事務(wù)所和攝影師：A.Ra?kevi?iūt?, I. Veliut?, A. Barti?iūt?-Janu?ien?, A. Kumpis, V.Gu?ien?, D. Puod?iukien?, R. Berta?iūt?, A. Jankevi?ien?, R.Urbakavi?ius, L. Garba?auskas, N. Tukaj, S. Prikockis等。）

The Gri?kabūdis Church of the Transfiguration(Fig. 6), is the only surviving polygonal wooden church built in the Classicist tradition in Lithuania.It is of a spacious octagonal shape with rectangular annexes of a porch-portico and a presbytery-sacristy,as well as small side chapels. Octagonal belvedere towers rise above the pyramid-shaped roof and annexes. The main facade is made up of a portico with four Doric columns, the walls of which are decorated with polychromatic painting, the only example of its kind in Lithuania. The proliferation of neo-Classicist architectural elements are created by the use of illusionist and polychromatic painting. The interior is graced with one of the most impressive altar ensembles of the epoch of Historicism - five neo-Classicist and neo-Baroque0style altars. On the other side there is an ornate late Baroque and Rococo-style organ (1804), one of the most valuable instruments of that time in Lithuania.

Residential, public buildings in the cities in 19th-20th centries (based on the text by dr. Ingrida Veliute and Asta Ra?kevi?iūt?)

Several common types or urban wooden architecture can be distinguished. These would be:urban residential dwellings, usually with the side facade turned to the street, one storey tall, built to an elongated house design, covered with a tin dualpitched roof. The owner, who lived in one part of the house, would rent out the other parts.

Expanding out to the suburbs, taking on the traditions of folk architecture dominant in the countryside, farmstead-type houses were built in the towns. They were built further away from the street, with gardens, usually meant for one family.The one-storey high, rectangular-shaped houses were sometimes given extra height by having a mezzanine and an attic with a mansard roof, as well as a glazed veranda.

In the larger towns rented houses began to proliferate with 4 or more apartments for rent.They usually had two storeys, were rectangular in shape, covered with a dual-pitched roof, had minimal decoration, sometimes glazed porches, and balconies.

The developing suburbs of larger towns surrounded by nature and in particular the spa towns could boast of their villas, distinguished by the great variety of architectural solutions used (Fig. 7).The villas were usually asymmetrical in shape, with turrets, verandas, porches, mansard roofs with a broken contour, stylised volutes used for decoration,and the sleek helmet-type coverings of the turrets.Tsarist Russian architecture had the greatest influence on the construction of Vilnius villas, and elements of the Polish style (of Zakopane) became prevalent after World War I. One can also find elements of the Moorish-style and Lithuanian folk architecture. In the spa town of Druskininkai one can see the influence of Russian, Swiss, Polish and other European spas. In Kaunas the national style was important, while in the territory of Klaip?da one can discern the traditions of German architecture.

More complicated forms were frequently to be found in the architecture of smaller manor houses(Fig. 8). Summer houses, on the other hand, were simpler, adapted to the needs of holidaymakers and dispensed with the use of fancy decor. In the spa resorts the most important public gathering place was the Kurhaus (the principal building in a spa town, Fig.9) intended for entertainment.

Many of the wooden buildings had a simple layout, the drawings being prepared by so-called'draughtsmen'. However, there were also projects by very well-known architects.

Contemporary architecture

Wood in Lithuanian architecture became popular again in the last decade of the 20th century.Historically used as a cheap and convenient material for the speedy construction of buildings, wood in contemporary architecture has a versatile image.

After the restoration of Lithuania's independence and the restitution of private property in 1990, many Lithuanians were able to fulfil their dreams - to have a single-family house with a plot of land. Tired after the destruction of the environment in which they lived during the Soviet period, people strove for individuality and comfort in their houses, and this was often connected to the traditional forms and natural materials of traditional architecture. Wood in architecture (particularly as regards the finish) became increasingly more desirable.

In contemporary professional architecture wood is no longer perceived as the cheapest of materials but is being used to create a distinctive image and an environment of a high quality (Fig. 10). For this reason, the appearance and durability of wood are becoming important. A lot of attention is being paid not only to the quality of the material and the way it is worked but also to the construction, as well as the meticulous implementation of architectural solutions. Wood is most often used where it can be seen - in the finish and fittings (other materials being predominantly used in construction) (Fig. 11). It is a very versatile material and in the newest examples of Lithuanian architecture wood is used to create a contemporary image (Fig. 12), while the the new technologies in the use of wood (e.g. plywood) serve to contribute to the variety of expression (Fig. 13).

One of the features of the work of contemporary Lithuanian architects is the attention and respect paid to context. It is no coincidence that most of contemporary wooden architecture may be found in the natural environment where the texture and colour of wood are an intrinsic part (Fig. 14). The use of a traditional material is inspired not just by nature - wood is used where one wants to create a connection with traditional architecture (Fig. 15).Because of its natural quality and its "warm" image,wood is especially favoured in recreational facilities.□ (The information and pictures, used for this article, is a part of an exhibition "Wood in Lithuanian architecture". The exhibition was organised by Architects Association of Lithuania (curator: Rūta Leitanait?), supported by the Council for Culture of Lithuania. The authors of the exhibition: dr. Rasa Berta?iūt? (ethnographic architecture: villages,farmsteads), dr. Dal? Puod?iukien? (manorial estates), Kristina ?taupait? (sacral architecture), dr.Ingrida Veliūt? and Asta Ra?kevi?iūt? (the wooden architecture of Lithuanian towns from the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century), Rūta Leitanait? (contemporary wooden architecture in Lithuania). For the pictures used in the article we are grateful to: Open air museum of Lithunia, Kaunas City museum, Office of the Chief Archivist, Vilnius University library, Manuscripts department, ?iauliai Au?ros museum, Database of Lithuanian Manors,Centre of Cultural Heritage, Library of Heritage protection, architects'offices and photographers: A.Ra?kevi?iūt?, I. Veliut?, A. Barti?iūt?-Janu?ien?, A.Kumpis, V. Gu?ien?, D. Puod?iukien?, R. Berta?iūt?,A. Jankevi?ien?, R. Urbakavi?ius, L.Garba?auskas, N. Tukaj, S. Prikockis and others.)