倪旭東 賀爽爽

(浙江理工大學(xué)經(jīng)濟(jì)管理學(xué)院,杭州 310018)

1 引言

隨著團(tuán)隊(duì)成為解決復(fù)雜及富有創(chuàng)造力任務(wù)的代表,其應(yīng)用已然成為現(xiàn)代組織研究的熱點(diǎn)(Mathieu,Maynard,Rapp,&Gilson,2008;Gupta,Huang,&Niranjan,2010;Morgeson,DeRue,&Karam,2010),而子團(tuán)隊(duì)是指因團(tuán)隊(duì)成員年齡、國籍等人口統(tǒng)計(jì)特征的差異或與價(jià)值觀、技能以及認(rèn)知等非人口統(tǒng)計(jì)特征的交匯而自發(fā)形成的小群體(Lau &Murnighan,1998)。因此,子團(tuán)隊(duì)這一非正式的存在比團(tuán)隊(duì)這一制度層面的存在更為真實(shí)地影響著人們的行為。所以,最近學(xué)者們對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的研究不斷增長(謝小云,張正曉,王唯梁,2012;倪旭東,戴延君,姚春序,張宏,2015;Lau&Murnighan,2005;Meyer &Glenz,2013),子團(tuán)隊(duì)研究成為了團(tuán)隊(duì)研究的延續(xù)和拓展。

在日益普及的多樣化團(tuán)隊(duì)和信息共享的驅(qū)動(dòng)之下,子團(tuán)隊(duì)究竟是有益于團(tuán)隊(duì)活動(dòng)還是會(huì)抑制團(tuán)隊(duì)的正常運(yùn)行變得尤為重要。學(xué)者們對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的存在給團(tuán)隊(duì)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)過程帶來的利弊作用分析存在分歧,一些學(xué)者認(rèn)為子團(tuán)隊(duì)間成員的差異會(huì)增加學(xué)習(xí)行為以及滿意度(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003;Lau &Murnighan,2005)、提高團(tuán)隊(duì)創(chuàng)造力(Gong,Kim,Lee,&Zhu,2013)等有利于團(tuán)隊(duì)運(yùn)行的積極作用(Lau &Murnighan,2005;Rink &Jehn,2010)。而其他學(xué)者則認(rèn)為子團(tuán)隊(duì)會(huì)因彼此之間成員的多樣性而給團(tuán)隊(duì)帶來消極影響(Bell,Villado,Lukasik,Belau,&Briggs,2011;Guillaume,Brodbeck,&Riketta,2012;van Dijk,van Engen,&van Knippenberg,2012;Shemla,Meyer,Greer,&Jehn,2016),比如帶來團(tuán)隊(duì)沖突(van Knippenberg,Dawson,West,&Homan,2011)。之所以會(huì)產(chǎn)生這些相反的觀點(diǎn),主要是因?yàn)檠芯恳暯堑牟町?van Dijk &van Engen,2013)?；谛畔⒓庸ひ暯堑膶W(xué)者們認(rèn)為正是這種分化才使得不同的子團(tuán)隊(duì)存在不同的觀點(diǎn)和知識(shí)資源,即因團(tuán)隊(duì)成員的知識(shí)體系、信息加工方式等的異質(zhì)性而促進(jìn)相互融合與學(xué)習(xí)行為(Gibson&Vermeulen,2003)。而基于社會(huì)認(rèn)同觀點(diǎn)的學(xué)者則認(rèn)為當(dāng)團(tuán)隊(duì)被劃分為子團(tuán)隊(duì)時(shí),團(tuán)隊(duì)成員在子團(tuán)隊(duì)中的認(rèn)同感比在整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)高(Lau &Murnighan,1998),從而產(chǎn)生各種沖突和矛盾。

本文認(rèn)為子團(tuán)隊(duì)既會(huì)帶來積極效果也會(huì)導(dǎo)致負(fù)面影響(van knippenberg,De Dreu,&Homan,2004),關(guān)鍵取決于其所處的情境特征且受情景特征的調(diào)節(jié)。以子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的關(guān)系這個(gè)情境因素為例,當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間是合作關(guān)系時(shí),則會(huì)促進(jìn)整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)的學(xué)習(xí)行為以及技能知識(shí)的融合從而發(fā)揮其積極作用(Rico,Sánchez-Manzanares,Antino,&Lau,2012),但是當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間是競爭關(guān)系時(shí)則會(huì)引發(fā)沖突等消極作用(Polzer,2004)。因此深入考察各種調(diào)節(jié)因素對(duì)于更為細(xì)致地了解子團(tuán)隊(duì)的利弊作用具有重要意義。

雖然目前對(duì)于子團(tuán)隊(duì)的研究日益完善,但是對(duì)于子團(tuán)隊(duì)積極作用的促進(jìn)方式及其消極作用的緩和機(jī)制的深入探索依然缺乏(謝小云,張倩,2011),而組織需找到強(qiáng)化子團(tuán)隊(duì)益處且削弱其弊端的途徑來實(shí)現(xiàn)效能的最大化。因此本文主要通過梳理子團(tuán)隊(duì)產(chǎn)生積極作用及消極作用的情境,最后通過整合這些調(diào)節(jié)因素及其調(diào)節(jié)過程來更加清晰地闡述子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制。

2 子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用研究進(jìn)展

在當(dāng)今組織中,團(tuán)隊(duì)意味著多元化成員的結(jié)合,因此子團(tuán)隊(duì)也悄無聲息廣泛地存在于各類組織中。子團(tuán)隊(duì)是因團(tuán)隊(duì)成員年齡、性別等外顯異質(zhì)性的差異,甚至當(dāng)其與教育背景、個(gè)性、認(rèn)知等內(nèi)隱異質(zhì)性交匯時(shí),團(tuán)隊(duì)漸漸被隱形的線分割成的小群體,其中該隱形的線便是無形中將團(tuán)隊(duì)分割的斷裂帶(Lau &Murnighan,1998)。換句話說,子團(tuán)隊(duì)是在斷裂帶的背景下團(tuán)隊(duì)成員依據(jù)其獨(dú)特性而自發(fā)形成的一種團(tuán)隊(duì)拓展形式(倪旭東等,2015;Carton &Cummings,2012;Gratton,Voigt,&Erickson,2011),而這種獨(dú)特性是區(qū)分不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)成員彼此之間群際邊界的因素,它可以是因?yàn)檎J(rèn)同、價(jià)值觀等的異質(zhì)性而形成的基于認(rèn)同(identitybased)的子團(tuán)隊(duì),或是信息資源等掌控的差異而演化成的基于資源(resource-based)的子團(tuán)隊(duì),以及由于對(duì)信息的加工處理方式的不同而形成的基于知識(shí)(knowledge-based)的子團(tuán)隊(duì)(Carton &Cummings,2012),此外,有學(xué)者發(fā)現(xiàn)成員之間還會(huì)因?yàn)榈乩砦恢没蚴敲褡濉⒙殬I(yè)的不同而引發(fā)了一種基于位置(location-based)的斷裂帶(Cramton&Hinds,2004),進(jìn)而產(chǎn)生的位置型子團(tuán)隊(duì)也受到學(xué)者們的關(guān)注(Polzer,Crisp,Jarvenpaa,&Kim,2006)。

將子團(tuán)隊(duì)分類有利于研究不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)在某一情境下對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊的影響,而不同的研究視角也會(huì)影響其對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)作用的認(rèn)識(shí)(Bezrukova,Jehn,Zanutto,&Thatcher,2009)。就信息加工視角而言,其相關(guān)研究者主要從子團(tuán)隊(duì)帶來的積極影響的角度分析,認(rèn)為這種多樣化的信息加工方式可以為整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)帶來多元化、富有創(chuàng)意性的見解,從而拓寬解決問題的角度以及提高決策制定的質(zhì)量(Tegarden,Tegarden,&Sheetz,2009)。而社會(huì)分類視角則是從子團(tuán)隊(duì)帶來的不利影響切入,認(rèn)為子團(tuán)隊(duì)將團(tuán)隊(duì)分割成相互獨(dú)立分開的小團(tuán)體,從而會(huì)引起子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的偏見和誤會(huì)甚至是沖突(van Knippenberg et al.,2011)。本文則從綜合的層面來看待子團(tuán)隊(duì)的存在對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)運(yùn)行的利弊影響,即綜合分析其積極作用及其引發(fā)的不利影響并加以區(qū)分闡述。

2.1 子團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極作用

子團(tuán)隊(duì)積極影響著團(tuán)隊(duì)運(yùn)行的各個(gè)方面。首先從子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部來看,一些學(xué)者認(rèn)為雖然因斷裂帶形成的子團(tuán)隊(duì)分割了成員與其他子團(tuán)隊(duì)成員的資源,但是它也使得同質(zhì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)成員更進(jìn)一步共享資源(Meyer,Shemla,Li,&Wegge,2015),Carton和 Cummings (2012)也認(rèn)為成員更加偏愛子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部成員且愿意在子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部進(jìn)行信息資源的共享。此外,同質(zhì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)可以成為社會(huì)支持的重大資源(Thatcher &Patel,2012),即子團(tuán)隊(duì)能夠給予員工一種歸屬感,而這種歸屬感可能在團(tuán)隊(duì)中較為薄弱或較難感受得到(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003)。其次從子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間來看,當(dāng)信息存在差異,比如不同的子團(tuán)隊(duì)聯(lián)合時(shí),團(tuán)隊(duì)更可能討論信息并使其成為決策的一部分(Phillips &Loyd,2006;Rink &Jehn,2010)。Bezrukova 和 Uparna (2009)認(rèn)為不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的差異會(huì)給團(tuán)隊(duì)帶來更多創(chuàng)造力。總之,子團(tuán)隊(duì)的存在給團(tuán)隊(duì)運(yùn)行帶來的積極作用主要是從決策質(zhì)量的提高、利于目標(biāo)的達(dá)成以及同伴效應(yīng)來體現(xiàn)。

2.1.1 決策質(zhì)量的提高

不同的子團(tuán)隊(duì)可以提出有所差異的視角和方法來完成任務(wù),而且這種多元化的觀點(diǎn)可以激發(fā)更高的認(rèn)知能力和富有創(chuàng)造力的想法(Bezrukova&Uparna,2009),比如信息型斷裂帶所形成的子團(tuán)隊(duì)會(huì)通過專門化、對(duì)不同想法的關(guān)注以及決策方案的深度分析來提高信息精確程度(Cooper,Patel,&Thatcher,2014)。當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)是基于信息資源的差異而形成的資源型子團(tuán)隊(duì)時(shí),可以更好地定位團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)信息資源的分布,因?yàn)樾畔⑴c子團(tuán)隊(duì)分類相聯(lián)系(Bezrukova et al.,2009;Bezrukova,Thatcher,Jehn,&Spfel,2012),而且當(dāng)不同的子團(tuán)隊(duì)聯(lián)合時(shí),團(tuán)隊(duì)更可能討論信息并使其成為決策的一部分(Phillips &Loyd,2006;Rink &Jehn,2010),同時(shí)也因?yàn)樽訄F(tuán)隊(duì)所產(chǎn)生的心理支撐,子團(tuán)隊(duì)成員更敢于表達(dá)自己的觀點(diǎn)(Nishii &Goncalo,2008)。此外,團(tuán)隊(duì)信息交換可以提高創(chuàng)造力(Kim et al.,2013),且更為深度地分析問題并提高決策制定的質(zhì)量和水平(Tegarden et al.,2009)。

2.1.2 利于目標(biāo)的達(dá)成

子團(tuán)隊(duì)的存在能夠有利于團(tuán)隊(duì)目標(biāo)的達(dá)成,一方面由于子團(tuán)隊(duì)是因團(tuán)隊(duì)成員彼此之間在認(rèn)同、資源、知識(shí)技能等一種或多重異質(zhì)而形成的小群體(Carton &Cummings,2012),因此為了實(shí)現(xiàn)共同的團(tuán)隊(duì)目標(biāo),會(huì)使得不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間相互學(xué)習(xí)(Srivastava,Bartol,&Locke,2006),尤其是當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)是依據(jù)技能知識(shí)等形成的知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)時(shí),更會(huì)促進(jìn)這種學(xué)習(xí)行為的交匯(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003)。這就使得團(tuán)隊(duì)成員在知識(shí)技能等方面得以提高,更高質(zhì)量的完成目標(biāo)。另一方面借用子團(tuán)隊(duì)的形式去實(shí)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)可能會(huì)比整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)執(zhí)行更為有利,因?yàn)楫?dāng)某一子團(tuán)隊(duì)具備專門化技能時(shí),由該子團(tuán)隊(duì)去完成其所擅長的任務(wù)時(shí)既可以降低資源的使用又可以提高效率,比如在處理具有某種特征的任務(wù)時(shí),比如困難、非常規(guī)性任務(wù)(Meyer et al.,2015),一些子團(tuán)隊(duì)可能比其他子團(tuán)隊(duì)更合適(Bezrukova,Roseman,&Phebus,2005;Bezrukova et al.,2009)。子團(tuán)隊(duì)的這種技能知識(shí)等的分化類似于分工的作用,可以展現(xiàn)出目標(biāo)實(shí)現(xiàn)的高效性且節(jié)約資源,因此團(tuán)隊(duì)只需要運(yùn)用擅長該任務(wù)的子團(tuán)隊(duì)去完成任務(wù)。

2.1.3 同伴效應(yīng)

子團(tuán)隊(duì)的形式會(huì)促使同伴效應(yīng)現(xiàn)象的產(chǎn)生(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003)。一方面比起子團(tuán)隊(duì)外的其他成員,團(tuán)隊(duì)成員更偏愛于子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部成員,且樂于與他們交流或者交換信息(Carton &Cummings,2012),因此子團(tuán)隊(duì)的存在使得子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部成員凝結(jié)成一個(gè)小群體,這也使成員具備了歸屬感以降低組織的人員流失率,提高了其滿意度水平。而另一方面,正是因?yàn)橥樾?yīng)的作用才使得成員更愿意表達(dá)自己的觀點(diǎn),因?yàn)樵谧訄F(tuán)隊(duì)中,成員確信他們有同伴來分享他們的觀點(diǎn),至少是支持而且理解的(Crott &Werner,1994)。因此,它會(huì)為成員表達(dá)以及實(shí)行他們的觀點(diǎn)提供心理支持需要(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003;Nishii &Goncalo,2008),而這種心理支持則為整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)帶來了更多的思路(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003)。

2.2 子團(tuán)隊(duì)的消極影響

子團(tuán)隊(duì)的存在也會(huì)給團(tuán)隊(duì)運(yùn)行帶來諸多消極影響。子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間會(huì)變得相互競爭(Halevy,2008),這種緊張感將會(huì)導(dǎo)致團(tuán)隊(duì)間的沖突并有損交流,降低績效(Barkema &Shvyrkov,2007;Lau &Murnighan,2005;van Knippenberg et al.,2011),而交流障礙阻礙了必要知識(shí)的交換(Halevy,2008;Lau &Murnighan,2005)。且因子團(tuán)隊(duì)而產(chǎn)生的團(tuán)隊(duì)專門化也可以導(dǎo)致子團(tuán)隊(duì)間交流的減少以及高水平的沖突,尤其是當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)獨(dú)特性具威脅的時(shí)候(Choi &Sy,2010;Pearsall,Ellis,&Evans,2008;Thatcher &Patel,2012),總之,子團(tuán)隊(duì)的存在也會(huì)帶來圈外偏見、團(tuán)隊(duì)交流密度的降低、認(rèn)同偏差以及壓力等消極影響(謝小云等,2012;González&Brown,2006)。

2.2.1 圈外偏見

由于子團(tuán)隊(duì)造成了一種內(nèi)部同質(zhì)、外部異質(zhì)的現(xiàn)象(謝小云等,2012),因此使得團(tuán)隊(duì)成員在產(chǎn)生圈內(nèi)偏好(ingroup favoritism)的同時(shí),也會(huì)產(chǎn)生圈外偏見(intergroup bias)(Lau &Murnighan,2005;Li &Hambrick,2005),圈外偏見是指團(tuán)隊(duì)成員會(huì)對(duì)所在群體外其他群體的成員產(chǎn)生敵意和歧視(謝小云等,2012)。由社會(huì)分類理論可知,人們更喜歡和信任與自己相似的個(gè)體而排斥和歧視與自己異質(zhì)的個(gè)體,因此在整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)中,團(tuán)隊(duì)成員因其相似性而更加喜愛和信任子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部成員,而對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)外部成員持有偏見和不信任(Carton &Cummings,2012;Bezrukova et al.,2009),尤其是在強(qiáng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)中的成員更能夠看到他們與子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部成員高度的相似性以及與子團(tuán)隊(duì)外部成員高度的差異(van Knippenberg et al.,2004)。所以在這種情況下不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)的成員之間會(huì)發(fā)生沖突和誤會(huì),降低彼此的信任、喜愛和積極評(píng)價(jià)(van Knippenberg et al.,2011)。

2.2.2 降低團(tuán)隊(duì)交流密度

子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的偏見與沖突將更深一步影響子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的交流密度,由于在跨子團(tuán)隊(duì)中團(tuán)隊(duì)成員經(jīng)歷更多的沖突和不信任(Choi &Sy,2010;Homan,van Knippenberg,van Kleef,&De Dreu,2007;Pearsall et al.,2008),而且當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度越高時(shí),其產(chǎn)生的任務(wù)沖突、過程沖突以及關(guān)系沖突也隨之升高(Thatcher &Patel,2012),因此子團(tuán)隊(duì)成員更不愿意與子團(tuán)隊(duì)外部成員進(jìn)行交流而是把他們當(dāng)作圈外人。然而整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)交流密度的降低則有損信息在不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的交換與加工,尤其是當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)具備專業(yè)技能時(shí)這種效果會(huì)被放大(Pearsall et al.,2008;Choi &Sy,2010)。因此不僅團(tuán)隊(duì)決策的質(zhì)量會(huì)隨之降低,團(tuán)隊(duì)間合作和團(tuán)隊(duì)績效也會(huì)受到抑制(Li &Hambrick,2005;Cooper et al.,2014;van Knippenberg et al.,2004,2011)。最后這種較低的交流密度反過來又會(huì)加劇誤解與偏見的產(chǎn)生,從而引發(fā)一種惡性循環(huán)。

2.2.3 認(rèn)同偏差

當(dāng)團(tuán)隊(duì)被分化成多個(gè)子團(tuán)隊(duì)時(shí),團(tuán)隊(duì)成員會(huì)陷入一種社會(huì)困境(social dilemmas)之中,即團(tuán)隊(duì)成員同時(shí)面臨著團(tuán)隊(duì)利益、子團(tuán)隊(duì)利益以及個(gè)人利益的抉擇,而且這些利益常不相容(Polzer,2004)。尤其是當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利益與團(tuán)隊(duì)利益相沖突時(shí),比起團(tuán)隊(duì)認(rèn)同團(tuán)隊(duì)成員們可能更傾向于認(rèn)同其所在的子團(tuán)隊(duì),因此在執(zhí)行團(tuán)隊(duì)任務(wù)和團(tuán)隊(duì)目標(biāo)時(shí),團(tuán)隊(duì)成員更會(huì)顧忌其所在子團(tuán)隊(duì)的利益與聲譽(yù)而去損害團(tuán)隊(duì)目標(biāo)或任務(wù)的達(dá)成(Polzer,2004),從而產(chǎn)生一種認(rèn)同偏差。因此雖然認(rèn)同偏差可以提高子團(tuán)隊(duì)認(rèn)同感和凝聚力,卻降低了整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)的凝聚力以及團(tuán)隊(duì)成員為整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)貢獻(xiàn)的積極性(Lau&Murnighan,2005)。此外,也因?yàn)閳F(tuán)隊(duì)成員們具有雙重身份(González &Brown,2006),這一雙重身份使得團(tuán)隊(duì)成員既要顧慮到團(tuán)隊(duì)也要考慮到自身所處的子團(tuán)隊(duì),因此團(tuán)隊(duì)成員不僅面臨著子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的差異而產(chǎn)生的壓力,而且還承受著子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部的壓力,比如為了子團(tuán)隊(duì)的利益而順從子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)其他人的想法,或是為了與子團(tuán)隊(duì)步調(diào)一致而采取從眾的行為(Chen &Chen,2009)。

3 子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制

子團(tuán)隊(duì)的利弊作用會(huì)受到其情景因素的調(diào)節(jié)。比如中等強(qiáng)度的子團(tuán)隊(duì)與較弱或較強(qiáng)的子團(tuán)隊(duì)相比將會(huì)帶來更高的學(xué)習(xí)行為(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003),因此可以通過控制子團(tuán)隊(duì)的強(qiáng)度來調(diào)節(jié)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極影響;而當(dāng)團(tuán)隊(duì)成員理解并認(rèn)同彼此之間的差異時(shí)可以降低偏見和沖突(Homan et al.,2007),因此組織可以運(yùn)用相應(yīng)機(jī)制來增強(qiáng)成員對(duì)彼此間差異的認(rèn)同以緩和子團(tuán)隊(duì)的消極作用。本文主要是整合了以子團(tuán)隊(duì)(子團(tuán)隊(duì)結(jié)構(gòu)屬性和構(gòu)成)和團(tuán)隊(duì)(情感整合及領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式)兩個(gè)層面來分析這些調(diào)節(jié)因素對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊影響的作用機(jī)制的學(xué)者觀點(diǎn)。

3.1 子團(tuán)隊(duì)層面

3.1.1 子團(tuán)隊(duì)結(jié)構(gòu)屬性

子團(tuán)隊(duì)的結(jié)構(gòu)屬性是指團(tuán)隊(duì)成員分類到子團(tuán)隊(duì)的不同方式(Carton &Cummings,2013)。它主要包括子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量和平衡性(Thatcher &Patel,2012),學(xué)者們發(fā)現(xiàn)可以通過影響子團(tuán)隊(duì)的結(jié)構(gòu)屬性即調(diào)整子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量或其平衡性來調(diào)節(jié)其對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的利弊作用(倪旭東,項(xiàng)小霞,姚春序,2016;Thatcher &Patel,2012;Carton,Cummings,&Evron,2011;Carton &Cummings,2013)。

有關(guān)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量與平衡性的調(diào)整存在著爭議,以平衡性為例,一些學(xué)者認(rèn)為當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)處于不平衡時(shí)更為有效,因?yàn)榇藭r(shí)團(tuán)隊(duì)較少經(jīng)歷認(rèn)同威脅,團(tuán)隊(duì)成員不會(huì)將子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的關(guān)系鎖定為“我們 VS他們”,即此時(shí)子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的沖突比平衡時(shí)更為緩和(Harrison &Klein,2007;Menon &Phillips,2011;Jehn &Bezrukova,2010)。而另外一些學(xué)者則認(rèn)為平衡的子團(tuán)隊(duì)更為有效,因?yàn)閳F(tuán)隊(duì)會(huì)整合不同見解去實(shí)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003;O`Leary &Mortensen,2010)。之所以存在不同觀點(diǎn),是因?yàn)閷W(xué)者們?cè)谘芯繒r(shí)未充分考慮到子團(tuán)隊(duì)的類型(Carton et al.,2011),即不同類型的子團(tuán)隊(duì)會(huì)通過不同的方式來影響團(tuán)隊(duì),比如通過關(guān)系或者任務(wù)沖突(Choi &Sy,2010)。因此本文將結(jié)合子團(tuán)隊(duì)類型來分析其結(jié)構(gòu)屬性對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制。

子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性。平衡性是指子團(tuán)隊(duì)中成員的相對(duì)分布是否平衡,其中平衡性子團(tuán)隊(duì)是指團(tuán)隊(duì)中無少數(shù)與多數(shù)子團(tuán)隊(duì)(Carton et al.,2011)。利用平衡性來調(diào)節(jié)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的利弊作用較為有效,有學(xué)者提出子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性比斷裂帶更能預(yù)測團(tuán)隊(duì)績效(Bezrukova et al.,2009)。由于子團(tuán)隊(duì)產(chǎn)生于不同類型的斷裂帶(Lau &Murnighan,1998),而且在相同的結(jié)構(gòu)屬性上影響有所不同(Carton &Cummings,2012),所以在研究其對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用時(shí)應(yīng)先考慮子團(tuán)隊(duì)的類型。平衡性可以促進(jìn)知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極作用。對(duì)知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)來說,多元化視角和信息、知識(shí)的共享可以為團(tuán)隊(duì)帶來積極影響(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003),而增加知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性尤其是當(dāng)其平衡時(shí),可以促進(jìn)子團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極影響,因?yàn)閳F(tuán)隊(duì)更可能給予每個(gè)子團(tuán)隊(duì)公平的地位和機(jī)會(huì)分享其想法和觀點(diǎn),此時(shí)通過影響知識(shí)信息的完備和多元化見解的交匯作用于團(tuán)隊(duì),尤其是完成復(fù)雜任務(wù)及非常規(guī)任務(wù),因?yàn)榇藭r(shí)更易于不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)成員之間共享知識(shí)和交匯學(xué)習(xí)模式(Carton et al.,2011;Carton&Cummings,2013)。因此可以通過影響子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性來達(dá)到強(qiáng)化知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)積極作用的效果;平衡性也可以削弱認(rèn)同型子團(tuán)隊(duì)的消極作用。對(duì)認(rèn)同型子團(tuán)隊(duì)而言,偏見、沖突以及溝通問題會(huì)導(dǎo)致消極影響(Li &Hambrick,2005)。而降低子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性特別是當(dāng)其不平衡時(shí),子團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的消極作用可以得以緩和。這是因?yàn)樽訄F(tuán)隊(duì)平衡意味著兩個(gè)或多個(gè)子團(tuán)隊(duì)實(shí)力相當(dāng),更會(huì)導(dǎo)致沖突的發(fā)生,而當(dāng)其不平衡時(shí)則意味著有一方強(qiáng)大,而其他弱小,這種權(quán)利集中化的現(xiàn)象會(huì)降低沖突的發(fā)生,使團(tuán)隊(duì)運(yùn)行得更為流暢和有效(Bunderson&Boumgarden,2010)。

子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量。子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量是指團(tuán)隊(duì)中子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量規(guī)模,即團(tuán)隊(duì)是被分化成兩個(gè)、三個(gè)還是多個(gè)子團(tuán)隊(duì),子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量也可以調(diào)節(jié)其利弊作用((Polzer et al.,2006;Carton &Cummings,2013)。子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量可以促進(jìn)知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極作用。團(tuán)隊(duì)中知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量越多也就意味著多種信息加工方式以及知識(shí)技能等方面存在諸多差異,因此它既可以為團(tuán)隊(duì)提供較多的觀點(diǎn)且會(huì)激發(fā)不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的相互學(xué)習(xí)行為(Carton&Cummings,2013),此時(shí)團(tuán)隊(duì)創(chuàng)造力得以提高,子團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極作用也得以促進(jìn);子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量也可以削弱認(rèn)同型子團(tuán)隊(duì)和位置型子團(tuán)隊(duì)的消極作用。對(duì)于認(rèn)同型子團(tuán)隊(duì)來說,當(dāng)團(tuán)隊(duì)中存在兩個(gè)認(rèn)同型子團(tuán)隊(duì)時(shí)認(rèn)同威脅和沖突氛圍最強(qiáng),而增加子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量可以緩和子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的沖突(Carton&Cummings,2013)。而對(duì)于位置型子團(tuán)隊(duì)而言,當(dāng)一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)越不分散,即有越少的子團(tuán)隊(duì)組成,則有更高的矛盾和越低的信任(Polzer et al.,2006),因?yàn)楫?dāng)一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)是由兩個(gè)子團(tuán)隊(duì)組成時(shí),此時(shí)對(duì)抗程度較高,斷裂帶強(qiáng)度較大。因此可以通過增加子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量來降低認(rèn)同型和位置型子團(tuán)隊(duì)間沖突等消極影響,即削弱子團(tuán)隊(duì)的消極作用。

子團(tuán)隊(duì)的結(jié)構(gòu)屬性可以調(diào)節(jié)其利弊作用,不過在調(diào)節(jié)時(shí)應(yīng)考慮到子團(tuán)隊(duì)的類型。比如對(duì)于知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)來說,應(yīng)當(dāng)增加它的平衡性以及增加它的數(shù)量來促進(jìn)子團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極影響;而對(duì)于認(rèn)同型子團(tuán)隊(duì)和位置型子團(tuán)隊(duì)而言則應(yīng)該降低它的平衡性即加強(qiáng)它的不平衡性或者增加認(rèn)同型子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量,這時(shí)可以減輕子團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的消極影響。此外,子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性和數(shù)量具有交互作用即能夠相互影響。比起有兩個(gè)認(rèn)同型,對(duì)于有三個(gè)或更多的基于認(rèn)同型的子團(tuán)隊(duì)來說,降低子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性將更有利于團(tuán)隊(duì)績效,因?yàn)楫?dāng)增加認(rèn)同型子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量時(shí),降低子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性會(huì)使得權(quán)利得以分散即降低子團(tuán)隊(duì)的權(quán)利集中化的程度,從而使得團(tuán)隊(duì)獲益匪淺;在兩個(gè)或更多知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間,子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量和平衡性也會(huì)相互影響,當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的數(shù)量增加時(shí),增加子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性將會(huì)更有利于團(tuán)隊(duì)運(yùn)行,因?yàn)榇藭r(shí)更多的知識(shí)來源組合在一起,團(tuán)隊(duì)將產(chǎn)生更多創(chuàng)造性的方案以完成任務(wù)(Carton &Cummings,2013)。不過Carton和Cummings (2013)僅提到認(rèn)同型子團(tuán)隊(duì)增加數(shù)量降低平衡性以及知識(shí)型子團(tuán)隊(duì)雙高的組合方式,而子團(tuán)隊(duì)數(shù)量和平衡性之間雙高、雙低以及兩種一高一低的四種完整的組合方式有待進(jìn)一步的補(bǔ)充。

3.1.2 子團(tuán)隊(duì)構(gòu)成

由于組織越來越依賴團(tuán)隊(duì)去解決問題以實(shí)現(xiàn)持續(xù)的盈利,團(tuán)隊(duì)如何構(gòu)成也變得尤為重要(Kearney,Gebert,&Voelpel,2009;Sornech &Drach-Zahavy,2013;Mathieu,Tannenbaum,Donsbach,&Alliger,2014),子團(tuán)隊(duì)構(gòu)成的差異決定了其對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)作用過程的不同。Polzer (2004)將子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的關(guān)系作為子團(tuán)隊(duì)構(gòu)成的主要因素,而一些學(xué)者將子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度也作為衡量子團(tuán)隊(duì)構(gòu)成的因素(Gibson&Vermeulen,2003;Lau &Murnighan,2005),故此本文將從子團(tuán)隊(duì)間的關(guān)系以及子團(tuán)隊(duì)的強(qiáng)度來分析其對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的調(diào)節(jié)方式。

子團(tuán)隊(duì)間的關(guān)系。子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的關(guān)系影響他們之間的交流密度、共享信息知識(shí)的意愿以及彼此之間的偏見沖突等不利因素。子團(tuán)隊(duì)間的關(guān)系主要是指彼此之間是合作關(guān)系還是競爭關(guān)系。首先,若子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間屬于合作關(guān)系,比如共同完成一項(xiàng)任務(wù)或達(dá)到組織目標(biāo)時(shí),這時(shí)候團(tuán)隊(duì)成員會(huì)更聚焦于目標(biāo)本身或受到任務(wù)激勵(lì)而不是子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的差異(Kane,Argote,&Levine,2005;Meyer&Schermuly,2012;Rico et al.,2012),因此子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間更可能會(huì)相互分享其信息知識(shí)和技能以更好地完成任務(wù)。所以可以通過共同完成任務(wù)等方式讓子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間進(jìn)行合作與協(xié)調(diào),即可以通過加強(qiáng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的合作關(guān)系來強(qiáng)化子團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極作用。其次,當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間存在競爭關(guān)系時(shí)比如爭奪同一資源,那么子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的沖突會(huì)更多,因此此時(shí)子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部成員會(huì)將子團(tuán)隊(duì)視作一個(gè)整體而忽略其在團(tuán)隊(duì)中的身份,所以他們會(huì)為了子團(tuán)隊(duì)而引發(fā)沖突且增強(qiáng)對(duì)彼此的敵意(Polzer,2004)。因此可以通過降低子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的利益沖突或者競爭關(guān)系來降低這種消極影響,比如注意調(diào)整報(bào)酬結(jié)構(gòu)等來減少子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的競爭性(Meyer et al.,2015);此外在對(duì)資源的分配方面,若子團(tuán)隊(duì)來自同一組織時(shí),個(gè)人對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)有較強(qiáng)認(rèn)同時(shí)會(huì)感到子團(tuán)隊(duì)間較少的差異,因此應(yīng)將更多的資源分配于團(tuán)隊(duì)層面而較少分配于子團(tuán)隊(duì)層面,而當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)屬于不同組織時(shí),應(yīng)將資源較少分配于團(tuán)隊(duì)層面而多分配于子團(tuán)隊(duì)層面(Polzer,2004)。

子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度。子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度是指團(tuán)隊(duì)成員集中多種人口統(tǒng)計(jì)特征重疊的程度(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003),而非人口統(tǒng)計(jì)也可以導(dǎo)致子團(tuán)隊(duì)的產(chǎn)生(Gratton et al.,2011;Bezrukova et al.,2009;Carton&Cummings,2012),所以本文將子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度定義為團(tuán)隊(duì)成員多重屬性特征重疊的程度。子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度也是其構(gòu)成中必不可少的部分,它既可以增強(qiáng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)積極影響也可以削弱其消極作用。子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度與團(tuán)隊(duì)學(xué)習(xí)行為之間呈現(xiàn)倒“U 形曲線”,即中等強(qiáng)度的子團(tuán)隊(duì)將會(huì)帶來更高的學(xué)習(xí)行為,而很強(qiáng)或很弱的子團(tuán)隊(duì)將導(dǎo)致較低的團(tuán)隊(duì)學(xué)習(xí)行為。因?yàn)楫?dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)處于中等強(qiáng)度時(shí),既會(huì)有不同的觀點(diǎn)以激起探討和辯論,而不是像較強(qiáng)或較弱子團(tuán)隊(duì)盤踞在習(xí)慣性行為中。因此中等子團(tuán)隊(duì)與較弱或較強(qiáng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)相比,團(tuán)隊(duì)授權(quán)和知識(shí)管理系統(tǒng)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)學(xué)習(xí)行為的作用更強(qiáng)(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003),所以可以調(diào)控子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度來調(diào)節(jié)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的利弊作用。首先,子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度可以增強(qiáng)其對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極作用,即是促進(jìn)學(xué)習(xí)行為的產(chǎn)生。當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度較低時(shí),由于個(gè)體間相似性不夠充分從而子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的學(xué)習(xí)行為較少,而當(dāng)團(tuán)隊(duì)包含中等強(qiáng)度的子團(tuán)隊(duì)且其成員具有相似人口統(tǒng)計(jì)特征,此時(shí)團(tuán)隊(duì)學(xué)習(xí)最多(Lau &Murnighan,2005)。與此同時(shí)也要控制適度的子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度,Thatcher,Jehn和Zanutto (2003)曾提出中等強(qiáng)度斷裂帶的團(tuán)隊(duì)比較強(qiáng)或較弱斷裂帶的團(tuán)隊(duì)沖突少,與之類似,因?yàn)樽訄F(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度較高也意味著不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間差異較大,反而會(huì)因斷裂帶的影響導(dǎo)致偏見沖突等消極作用(Gibson &Vermeulen,2003),因此應(yīng)降低該子團(tuán)隊(duì)的強(qiáng)度以避免過多的子團(tuán)隊(duì)間沖突。因此為了提高子團(tuán)隊(duì)間的學(xué)習(xí)行為且避免彼此之間的沖突,應(yīng)當(dāng)適度調(diào)節(jié)子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度來調(diào)節(jié)其利弊作用,即當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度較低時(shí)應(yīng)當(dāng)增強(qiáng)其強(qiáng)度以增加學(xué)習(xí)交流等積極作用,而當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度較高時(shí)應(yīng)當(dāng)降低其強(qiáng)度以減輕偏見及沖突等消極影響。

3.2 團(tuán)隊(duì)層面

3.2.1 情感整合

情感整合是指不犧牲任意一方而整合全部的多方關(guān)系,它可以激發(fā)包括子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間相互影響的多維度關(guān)系(Cronin,Bezrukova,Weingart,&Tinsley,2011)。無論是對(duì)整個(gè)組織或僅是對(duì)一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)而言,情感因素既難以控制亦需重視,比如領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者的情緒管理正相關(guān)于團(tuán)隊(duì)成員的個(gè)人主動(dòng)性(Schraub,Michel,Shemla,&Sonntag,2014),積極團(tuán)隊(duì)情感基調(diào)則有利于團(tuán)隊(duì)績效(Chi &Huang,2014)。而團(tuán)隊(duì)是由不同的個(gè)人組成,個(gè)人對(duì)于他人的情感可能是積極的(比如喜愛等),也可能是消極的(比如生氣和輕蔑等),即情感可以調(diào)控整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)的基調(diào),尤其是團(tuán)隊(duì)成員對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)外部成員的情感會(huì)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)產(chǎn)生不同影響(Bezrukova et al.,2005)。

Cronin等人(2011)認(rèn)為可以通過加強(qiáng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)間的情感整合來提高成員的滿意度。子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的情感整合能夠加強(qiáng)彼此的信任與尊重,從而促進(jìn)子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的交流與合作。由于情緒會(huì)影響團(tuán)隊(duì)成員的隱性知識(shí)共享從而作用于創(chuàng)造力(湯超穎,朱月利,商繼美,2011),因此可以通過子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的情感整合來推動(dòng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)存在對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極影響。情感整合也可以削弱子團(tuán)隊(duì)存在所帶來的沖突及偏見等負(fù)面效果。如果子團(tuán)隊(duì)間的情感可以被較好地整合,那么成員與子團(tuán)隊(duì)外部成員之間的心理距離便會(huì)得以削減,彼此的溝通便可以較以往順暢,之前因不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)的差異所導(dǎo)致的偏見等問題也可以在此過程中逐漸好轉(zhuǎn),即情感整合可以調(diào)節(jié)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的形成對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)滿意度的消耗(Cronin et al.,2011)。需要注意的是,在利用情感整合來調(diào)節(jié)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用時(shí)應(yīng)關(guān)注其程度,因?yàn)榈颓楦姓峡赡軙?huì)導(dǎo)致成員對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)外部成員做錯(cuò)誤歸因,而這將更進(jìn)一步加劇子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的分化(Cronin et al.,2011),因此應(yīng)加大情感整合的力度來使得成員對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部成員的喜愛擴(kuò)散到整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)。

3.2.2 領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式

為了降低子團(tuán)隊(duì)間的偏見和沖突,提高彼此的交流密度,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的角色變得十分重要。比如團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)可以通過組織活動(dòng)來促進(jìn)不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的情感交流和接觸,以增加成員對(duì)其他子團(tuán)隊(duì)成員的了解(謝小云等,2012),不過這些均要受到領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式的影響。比如授權(quán)型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)可能會(huì)有助于子團(tuán)隊(duì)積極作用的發(fā)揮,因?yàn)槭跈?quán)型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)正相關(guān)于團(tuán)隊(duì)中的知識(shí)共享(Tung &Chang,2011),使得團(tuán)隊(duì)成員明確他們的想法,并且提供給他們更多的機(jī)會(huì)去共享彼此的知識(shí),即激發(fā)了學(xué)習(xí)他人的知識(shí)及技能的想法。此外還可以激發(fā)成員解決問題的主動(dòng)性,增加團(tuán)隊(duì)成員回復(fù)的速度,以及改善團(tuán)隊(duì)成員工作生活的質(zhì)量(Cohen &Bailey,1997)。變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)對(duì)創(chuàng)新和創(chuàng)造力也有積極的推動(dòng)作用(湯超穎等,2011),這種領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式會(huì)促進(jìn)子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的交流與知識(shí)信息共享以實(shí)現(xiàn)創(chuàng)新。但是變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的調(diào)節(jié)會(huì)受到團(tuán)隊(duì)一致性與個(gè)體差異型的影響,根據(jù)平均領(lǐng)導(dǎo)風(fēng)格理論,團(tuán)隊(duì)一致性變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)即領(lǐng)導(dǎo)作用的焦點(diǎn)為整體的團(tuán)隊(duì)而非個(gè)體成員,因此會(huì)用相同的方式對(duì)待每一個(gè)成員,這種一致性變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)正向影響團(tuán)隊(duì)交流網(wǎng)絡(luò)密度從而提高團(tuán)隊(duì)知識(shí)分享;而根據(jù)情境領(lǐng)導(dǎo)理論,個(gè)體差異型變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)即領(lǐng)導(dǎo)作用的焦點(diǎn)是個(gè)體成員而非整體的團(tuán)隊(duì),因此對(duì)待團(tuán)隊(duì)成員并非一視同仁,這種領(lǐng)導(dǎo)風(fēng)格正向影響團(tuán)隊(duì)成員交流網(wǎng)絡(luò)密度差異性從而降低團(tuán)隊(duì)知識(shí)共享(蔡亞華,賈良定,尤樹洋,張祎,陳艷露,2013),因此當(dāng)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)采取變革型風(fēng)格時(shí),應(yīng)當(dāng)更加重視團(tuán)隊(duì)一致性而不是將重點(diǎn)聚焦于個(gè)體差異。

領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式的運(yùn)用不僅可以促進(jìn)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的知識(shí)信息共享等積極影響,而且還可以調(diào)節(jié)子團(tuán)隊(duì)帶來的消極影響。例如變革型領(lǐng)導(dǎo)能夠減弱年齡斷裂帶對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)目標(biāo)的消極作用(Kunze &Bruch,2010)?？傊?領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式的差異會(huì)對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的調(diào)節(jié)起到不同的影響,因此應(yīng)當(dāng)擅于借用領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式來強(qiáng)化子團(tuán)隊(duì)帶來的積極作用以及削弱其不利影響。比如結(jié)合我國文化特征,差異性的團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為有損團(tuán)隊(duì)交流網(wǎng)絡(luò)密度的提高以及團(tuán)隊(duì)知識(shí)共享,因此應(yīng)當(dāng)降低該領(lǐng)導(dǎo)方式的運(yùn)用以減弱子團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)創(chuàng)造力的消極影響(蔡亞華等,2013)。

4 評(píng)述及未來研究展望

學(xué)者們對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的研究能夠清晰地了解子團(tuán)隊(duì)中的現(xiàn)象及其對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)過程的影響,而對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制進(jìn)行探索則會(huì)更加深入地挖掘其調(diào)節(jié)因素與調(diào)節(jié)過程。此外,對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的研究做了進(jìn)一步的延伸與拓展,有助于組織關(guān)注并有效處理團(tuán)隊(duì)中的消極效果,且利用子團(tuán)隊(duì)的形式來推動(dòng)其積極作用的發(fā)揮。本文整合了學(xué)者們對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制的研究,將子團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)過程的作用作為整個(gè)框架,按照其積極作用與消極作用的具體表現(xiàn)進(jìn)行劃分,并結(jié)合其相應(yīng)的調(diào)節(jié)因素及其調(diào)節(jié)過程來進(jìn)行闡述,如圖1所示。

雖然現(xiàn)有文獻(xiàn)已經(jīng)對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的利弊作用及其調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制進(jìn)行了較為多樣的研究,但是仍存有一些不足之處有待完善,因此本文認(rèn)為未來的研究可以從以下幾個(gè)角度進(jìn)行展開。

第一,未來的研究應(yīng)當(dāng)與子團(tuán)隊(duì)的動(dòng)態(tài)性特征相結(jié)合。子團(tuán)隊(duì)并不是一成不變的,而是會(huì)因其內(nèi)外部影響處于動(dòng)態(tài)之中,而這種動(dòng)態(tài)性會(huì)對(duì)其利弊作用的發(fā)揮產(chǎn)生影響,比如人員及外部環(huán)境情景的變動(dòng)。以子團(tuán)隊(duì)成員變動(dòng)為例,即當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)加入新成員或者原有成員退出時(shí),會(huì)使得原有的關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)發(fā)生變化(倪旭東等,2015),而且它也會(huì)改變子團(tuán)隊(duì)的平衡性和數(shù)量等,此時(shí)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極作用或消極作用會(huì)受其影響,而關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)的變動(dòng)也會(huì)進(jìn)一步對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)外部的人際關(guān)系產(chǎn)生影響。此外,團(tuán)隊(duì)外部情景會(huì)通過影響團(tuán)隊(duì)成員的相互作用、沖突水平以及團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)外部反應(yīng)的有效性來調(diào)節(jié)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的利弊作用(Cannella,Park,&Lee,2008),比如Cooper等人(2014)提出當(dāng)環(huán)境復(fù)雜性較高時(shí),基于信息型的子團(tuán)隊(duì)會(huì)提高多樣化需求的管理且增強(qiáng)團(tuán)隊(duì)的信息處理能力,從而促進(jìn)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的積極作用。目前以子團(tuán)隊(duì)動(dòng)態(tài)的視角來研究其對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的影響還存在較大的探索空間。

第二,未來的研究可以探索團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)加入某一子團(tuán)隊(duì)后的影響?，F(xiàn)有關(guān)團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的研究多聚焦于領(lǐng)導(dǎo)行為及風(fēng)格在團(tuán)隊(duì)中的作用及運(yùn)用(方陽春,2014;Giessner,van Knippenberg,van Ginkel,&Sleebos,2013;Homan &Greer,2013;Rast,Hogg,Giessner,2013),或以領(lǐng)導(dǎo)層為對(duì)象來調(diào)查多樣性、斷裂帶的影響(Hutzschenreuter &Horstkotte,2013;Ndofor,Sirmon,&He,2015;潘清泉,唐劉釗,韋慧民,2015),但是僅有較少的文獻(xiàn)考慮當(dāng)團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)加入某一子團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的影響(Meyer et al.,2015)。當(dāng)團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)加入某一子團(tuán)隊(duì)中,團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)會(huì)更加偏愛于其所在子團(tuán)隊(duì)的成員而將其擁有的特殊資源共享,以使得其所在的子團(tuán)隊(duì)獲益,尤其是當(dāng)危機(jī)發(fā)生時(shí),與團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)處于同一子團(tuán)隊(duì)的成員能夠有效地減輕沖突所帶來的負(fù)面影響(Meyer et al.,2015)。對(duì)于整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)來說,團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)介入某一子團(tuán)隊(duì)既會(huì)促進(jìn)子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的積極溝通等積極作用,而且還會(huì)引發(fā)沖突、偏見以及不公平現(xiàn)象等消極作用。因此未來對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)加入某一子團(tuán)隊(duì)后對(duì)整個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)的影響及其作用機(jī)制的研究還有待完備。

圖1 子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)制框架圖

第三,現(xiàn)有的研究往往忽視不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間進(jìn)程差異所造成的影響,未來可考慮子團(tuán)隊(duì)過程對(duì)其利弊作用的影響。以往對(duì)子團(tuán)隊(duì)的研究多是基于團(tuán)隊(duì)水平(Carton &Cummings,2012;Thatcher&Patel,2012),而忽略不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的運(yùn)行過程,即將子團(tuán)隊(duì)看作是基于相同的過程。但是子團(tuán)隊(duì)的進(jìn)程有所不同,相應(yīng)地對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的利弊作用及機(jī)制也會(huì)有所差異。在同一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)中不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)也會(huì)經(jīng)歷不同過程,比如當(dāng)某個(gè)子團(tuán)隊(duì)比另一個(gè)子團(tuán)隊(duì)獲得更多的資源時(shí),來自不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)的成員有可能展示不同水平績效(Meyer et al.,2015)。為了更好地考察子團(tuán)隊(duì)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的影響,在未來的研究中也應(yīng)將不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)的運(yùn)行過程考慮于內(nèi)。

第四,子團(tuán)隊(duì)距離的調(diào)節(jié)作用值得深入探索。子團(tuán)隊(duì)距離對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的影響可以參考斷裂帶距離。斷裂帶距離是指在社會(huì)分類或信息加工等方面彼此之間的距離即分散程度。斷裂帶距離會(huì)進(jìn)一步加劇社會(huì)分類斷裂帶對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的消極作用的強(qiáng)度,且對(duì)于基于信息的斷裂帶來說也會(huì)產(chǎn)生相似的消極作用(Bezrukova et al.,2009)。與斷裂帶距離相似,當(dāng)子團(tuán)隊(duì)距離較大時(shí),會(huì)使得成員保持他們所在子團(tuán)隊(duì)的“心理距離”,而且會(huì)阻止他們?cè)趫F(tuán)隊(duì)中表達(dá)想法的行為。且對(duì)于社會(huì)分類的子團(tuán)隊(duì)來說,若子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間存在較大距離,那么子團(tuán)隊(duì)間成員會(huì)更加敵對(duì)。因此可以通過降低子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的距離來緩解其對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的消極作用,比如增加不同子團(tuán)隊(duì)之間的相似性從而減少心理距離(Polzer,2004)。因此,未來應(yīng)重點(diǎn)研究子團(tuán)隊(duì)距離對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的調(diào)節(jié),且重視其與子團(tuán)隊(duì)強(qiáng)度同時(shí)作用時(shí)對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)的影響。

第五,基于人情的影響,未來的研究應(yīng)當(dāng)結(jié)合社會(huì)關(guān)系。在中國這個(gè)人情社會(huì),人際關(guān)系對(duì)團(tuán)隊(duì)成員的影響頗深,中國人也比較重視工作中人際關(guān)系的培養(yǎng)。人際關(guān)系不僅會(huì)影響到員工的歸屬感和滿意度,而且與領(lǐng)導(dǎo)之間的關(guān)系還會(huì)影響到領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的態(tài)度以及偏好。比如,雖然子團(tuán)隊(duì)內(nèi)部成員會(huì)對(duì)其外部成員產(chǎn)生沖突、偏見等(van Knippenberg et al.,2011),但若外部成員與其關(guān)系較好,此時(shí)彼此之間的偏見與誤會(huì)也會(huì)隨之降低很多;此外,領(lǐng)導(dǎo)成員交換關(guān)系對(duì)員工創(chuàng)新行為有顯著的預(yù)測作用(朱慶,2014)。因此,未來有關(guān)子團(tuán)隊(duì)利弊作用的研究應(yīng)置于中國人情之中,考慮社會(huì)關(guān)系的調(diào)節(jié)作用。

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