朱青青,劉國(guó)瑞,張憲,董姝君,高麗榮,鄭明輝,
1. 中國(guó)科學(xué)院生態(tài)環(huán)境研究中心 環(huán)境化學(xué)與生態(tài)毒理學(xué)國(guó)家重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室,北京 100085 2. 中國(guó)科學(xué)院大學(xué),北京 100049
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大氣中持久性有機(jī)污染物的采樣技術(shù)進(jìn)展
朱青青1,2,劉國(guó)瑞1,2,張憲1,2,董姝君1,2,高麗榮1,2,鄭明輝1,2,
1. 中國(guó)科學(xué)院生態(tài)環(huán)境研究中心 環(huán)境化學(xué)與生態(tài)毒理學(xué)國(guó)家重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室,北京 100085 2. 中國(guó)科學(xué)院大學(xué),北京 100049
大氣是全球持久性有機(jī)污染物(persistent organic pollutants, POPs)監(jiān)測(cè)的重要環(huán)境介質(zhì),大氣中POPs的采樣技術(shù)是準(zhǔn)確表征大氣中POPs賦存水平的關(guān)鍵所在。近年來(lái)大氣中POPs的采樣技術(shù)發(fā)展很快。本文介紹了大氣中POPs的兩類(lèi)采樣方法:主動(dòng)采樣法(active air sampling, AAS)和被動(dòng)采樣法(passive air sampling, PAS),總結(jié)了新型吸附材料和新型采樣器研發(fā)的成果,討論了不同類(lèi)型的采樣方法的特點(diǎn),對(duì)比分析了不同采樣方法獲得的POPs監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù),并提出今后應(yīng)用不同POPs大氣采樣技術(shù)在監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)可對(duì)比性研究方面值得關(guān)注的問(wèn)題。
持久性有機(jī)污染物;大氣;主動(dòng)采樣;被動(dòng)采樣
持久性有機(jī)污染物(persistent organic pollutants,POPs)是指在環(huán)境中難降解、可以在食物鏈中富集,能夠通過(guò)蒸發(fā)-冷凝、經(jīng)大氣的遠(yuǎn)距離傳輸從而影響到區(qū)域和全球環(huán)境的半揮發(fā)性且毒性很高的污染物。研究表明,POPs污染的嚴(yán)重性和復(fù)雜性遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過(guò)常規(guī)環(huán)境污染物,很多POPs不僅具有致癌、致畸和致突變性,而且還具有內(nèi)分泌干擾效應(yīng),對(duì)動(dòng)物甚至人類(lèi)的生存和繁衍構(gòu)成潛在風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。因此,環(huán)境中POPs的監(jiān)測(cè)受到了廣泛的關(guān)注。
大氣作為“匯”,匯集土壤、水體及各類(lèi)大氣排放源中的POPs,作為“源”,通過(guò)遠(yuǎn)距離傳輸和大氣沉降向其他介質(zhì)傳輸POPs,因此大氣是POPs傳輸?shù)闹匾浇?。此外,《關(guān)于持久性有機(jī)污染物(POPs)的斯德哥爾摩公約》第16條規(guī)定了為開(kāi)展履約成效評(píng)估而實(shí)施全球POPs監(jiān)測(cè)的要求,締約方大會(huì)通過(guò)了全球POPs監(jiān)測(cè)行動(dòng)計(jì)劃,將空氣列為POPs環(huán)境監(jiān)測(cè)的核心介質(zhì)。鑒于大氣中POPs對(duì)自然環(huán)境和人類(lèi)健康的潛在風(fēng)險(xiǎn),準(zhǔn)確評(píng)估大氣中POPs的賦存水平是必不可少的,而對(duì)于大氣中POPs的采集方法的技術(shù)研究就顯得尤為重要。
為了監(jiān)測(cè)大氣中POPs的濃度和評(píng)估空氣質(zhì)量,目前通常利用主動(dòng)大氣采樣(active air sampling, AAS)或被動(dòng)大氣采樣(passive air sampling, PAS)兩種方法來(lái)采集大氣樣品。張干和劉向等[1]曾對(duì)大氣PAS技術(shù)的基本原理和幾種主要的大氣PAS裝置進(jìn)行了較為全面的綜述。PAS技術(shù)采樣裝置結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單、操作方便、造價(jià)低廉、無(wú)需電力和特別維護(hù),測(cè)定結(jié)果為時(shí)間加權(quán)濃度,評(píng)價(jià)POPs的人體長(zhǎng)期暴露水平更具有科學(xué)性,具有一定的優(yōu)勢(shì)[2-6],且更適合于大范圍內(nèi)POPs的監(jiān)測(cè)[7-11]。Bogdal等[12]報(bào)道了利用被動(dòng)采樣技術(shù)監(jiān)測(cè)全球五大洲空氣中的POPs,也有相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)已報(bào)道應(yīng)用被動(dòng)采樣監(jiān)測(cè)地球南北極大氣中POPs的長(zhǎng)距離遷移變化[13]。被動(dòng)采樣器在應(yīng)用過(guò)程中還是存在一些不足:(1)被動(dòng)采樣器對(duì)于流量缺乏準(zhǔn)確度量,不能精確測(cè)定大氣中POPs濃度。(2)POPs在采集過(guò)程中因周期較長(zhǎng)可能發(fā)生解吸,影響分析結(jié)果。(3)被動(dòng)采樣器無(wú)法表征污染物在短時(shí)間內(nèi)的濃度變化[14]。傳統(tǒng)的大氣POPs采樣方法是AAS,該技術(shù)能夠精確測(cè)定流量,并計(jì)算出每次采集的大氣體積,提高數(shù)據(jù)的準(zhǔn)確程度;其流量較大,采樣時(shí)間短,可在幾天時(shí)間內(nèi)獲得數(shù)百立方米乃至數(shù)千立方米的大氣樣品,避免因采樣時(shí)間過(guò)長(zhǎng)POPs發(fā)生解吸的問(wèn)題;同時(shí)還可以捕捉到污染物在短時(shí)間內(nèi)的濃度變化。但是,AAS依賴(lài)電力支持,在缺乏電力供應(yīng)的偏遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)將無(wú)法實(shí)施采樣活動(dòng),此外,由于裝置的限制,無(wú)法實(shí)現(xiàn)大區(qū)域大尺度上大氣POPs的多點(diǎn)位同時(shí)采樣分析。綜上,PAS和AAS兩種大氣POPs采樣手段相互補(bǔ)充可以滿(mǎn)足大氣中POPs監(jiān)測(cè)的需求。
1.1 主動(dòng)大氣采樣
目前普遍采用的主動(dòng)采樣主要有總懸浮顆粒物(total suspended particles, TSP)采樣、粒徑小于10 μm的顆粒物(PM10)采樣和不同粒徑大氣顆粒物采樣。關(guān)于大氣中POPs的主動(dòng)采樣方法主要參考如下幾種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)方法:美國(guó)環(huán)保局針對(duì)二惡英類(lèi)(polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, PCDD/Fs)、溴代二惡英類(lèi)(polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, PBDD/Fs)和多氯聯(lián)苯(polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs)提出的TO-9A方法、針對(duì)有機(jī)氯農(nóng)藥(organochlorine pesticides, OCPs)的提出TO-4A方法和斯德哥爾摩公約通過(guò)的《全球POPs監(jiān)測(cè)技術(shù)導(dǎo)則》中建議的大流量PM10采樣方法。
1.1.1 TSP采樣
多數(shù)國(guó)家采用美國(guó)環(huán)保局提出的TO-9A方法開(kāi)展POPs監(jiān)測(cè)[15-16],即采集TSP和吸附氣相中POPs合并計(jì)總量的方法。該采樣法是利用采氣泵,形成負(fù)壓使大氣通過(guò)采樣器的捕集裝置,再利用安裝在捕集裝置內(nèi)的吸附材料對(duì)POPs的吸附、吸收等作用而進(jìn)行采樣的方法,如聚氨酯軟性泡沫(polyurethane foam, PUF)、半透膜(semi-permeable membrane, SPM)、玻璃纖維濾膜(glass fiber filter, GFF)和石英纖維濾膜(quartz fiber filter, QFF)等吸附材料。該采樣方法可由內(nèi)置流量計(jì)獲得精確的采樣氣體體積,通常采用的主動(dòng)采樣器有大流量主動(dòng)采樣器和小流量主動(dòng)采樣器。采用的采樣器通常配備的吸附材料是QFF和PUF吸附劑。TO-9A方法中要求每24 小時(shí)的采樣體積需達(dá)到325~400 m3,采樣速率0.114~0.285 m3·min-1。
1.1.2 PM10采樣
為了能更好地表征POPs的遠(yuǎn)距離遷移特性,2007年斯德哥爾摩公約秘書(shū)處組織編寫(xiě)并獲得締約方大會(huì)通過(guò)的《全球POPs監(jiān)測(cè)技術(shù)導(dǎo)則》要求采用具有切割器的采樣頭,采樣頭只采集粒徑小于10 μm的顆粒物,采集的PM10和吸附氣相中POPs合并計(jì)總量,采樣器如圖1(a)[14]所示。這種采樣方法在極地和一些長(zhǎng)期環(huán)境背景監(jiān)測(cè)站已有比較成功的應(yīng)用案例,但相對(duì)于大流量TSP采樣法的應(yīng)用仍相對(duì)較少。
1.1.3 不同粒徑大氣顆粒物采樣
主動(dòng)采樣中除常規(guī)的大流量TSP采樣和PM10采樣外,還針對(duì)不同粒徑大氣顆粒物設(shè)計(jì)了相關(guān)的主動(dòng)采樣器。如Ma等[17]利用安德森顆粒物采樣器(GUV-15HBL1)采集大氣中粒徑小于2.5 μm的顆粒物(PM2.5),研究其中多環(huán)芳烴(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs)的濃度水平和分布。Chrysikou等[18-19]利用安德森大流量顆粒物分級(jí)采樣器采集了5個(gè)不同粒徑范圍的顆粒物,顆粒物的動(dòng)力學(xué)直徑(dae)分別為:<0.95 μm,0.95~1.5 μm,1.5~3 μm,3~7.5 μm和>7.5 μm,研究發(fā)現(xiàn)OCPs和PCBs在冬季和夏季均主要存在于dae<0.95 μm的顆粒物中。Kaupp等[20]利用大氣顆粒物分級(jí)采樣器采集德國(guó)巴伐利亞?wèn)|北部的5個(gè)不同粒徑范圍的顆粒物(<0.32 μm,0.32~0.95 μm,0.95~2.9 μm,2.9~8.6 μm和8.6~26 μm),發(fā)現(xiàn)約92%的高氯代二惡英(Cl7-8DD/Fs)存在于dae<2.9 μm的顆粒物中,并且隨著粒徑的增大,顆粒物中的含量逐漸降低,當(dāng)dae>8.6 μm,平均僅為3.4%。Oh等[21]研究6個(gè)不同粒徑范圍的大氣顆粒物(<0.41 μm,0.41~0.73 μm,0.73~1.4 μm,1.4~2.1 μm,2.1~4.2 μm,4.2~10.2 μm和>10.2 μm),發(fā)現(xiàn)在dae<0.41 μm的顆粒物中,PCDD/Fs的含量達(dá)到60%以上;在dae<2.1 μm的顆粒物中,PCDD/Fs的含量達(dá)到90%。Chao等[22]發(fā)現(xiàn)大于80%的PCDD/Fs存在于dae<2.0 μm的細(xì)顆粒物中。Zhang等[23]研究北京近郊大氣中PCDD/Fs和PBDD/Fs在不同粒徑顆粒物中的分布,發(fā)現(xiàn)PCDD/Fs和PBDD/Fs均主要存在dae<1.0 μm的顆粒物中。此外,微孔碰撞多級(jí)采樣器(micro-orifice uniform deposition impactor, MOUDI)和Nano-MOUDI等小流量主動(dòng)采樣技術(shù)常用于采集不同粒徑的大氣顆粒物,MOUDI的采樣級(jí)數(shù)可以達(dá)到10級(jí),采樣粒徑范圍為0.056~18 μm,Nano-MOUDI的采樣級(jí)數(shù)可以達(dá)到13級(jí),采樣粒徑范圍為0.01~18 μm。目前這2種采樣技術(shù)主要用來(lái)分析大氣中水溶性離子、微量元素和一些有機(jī)成分,如有機(jī)碳、PAHs等[24-25]。Chuang等[26]利用MOUDI采集一家輪胎制造廠空氣中的PCDD/Fs,發(fā)現(xiàn)PCDD/Fs在粒徑<1.0 μm顆粒物中的總毒性當(dāng)量分別是>18 μm和2.5~10 μm的2.2和3.2倍。傳統(tǒng)的主動(dòng)采樣器一般是固定式的,為解決其相對(duì)不靈活這一缺點(diǎn),Zhang等[27]開(kāi)發(fā)了一種新型的移動(dòng)式的主動(dòng)采樣法,即配備一個(gè)汽車(chē)空氣過(guò)濾器,可用來(lái)分析城市空氣中PCDD/Fs的濃度水平。
1.1.4 影響主動(dòng)采樣的因素
影響主動(dòng)采樣的因素主要有采樣頭的選擇、吸附材料和濾膜的選擇、采樣是否穿透、樣品在濾膜上的揮發(fā)和吸附損失以及采樣過(guò)程中的降解影響等[28]。Melymuk等[28]對(duì)該部分內(nèi)容作了較為全面的綜述,下面著重介紹吸附材料和氣象條件的影響。
1.1.4.1 吸附材料的選擇
大氣中的POPs一般以顆粒相和氣相的形式存在。大氣顆粒相中POPs的吸附材料可選GFF、QFF等材料。氣相中POPs采集所用的吸附劑則有所不同,可選用的吸附劑包括PUF塞、XAD樹(shù)脂、雙PUF塞、Tenax TA、聚二甲基硅氧烷、PUF與XAD樹(shù)脂混合體和PUF-活性炭纖維膜(active carbon fiber felt, ACF)-PUF等。不同吸附材料的填充方式有所不同。
目前最常用的氣相吸附劑是PUF塞。張穎等[14]使用PUF和GFF作為吸附材料,在中國(guó)8個(gè)區(qū)域11個(gè)采樣點(diǎn),檢測(cè)了全國(guó)范圍內(nèi)大氣中12種POPs的污染水平。Mari等[29]根據(jù)TO-9A方法,使用PUF塞作為吸附材料,在西班牙的巴塞羅那采集了4個(gè)采樣點(diǎn)的大氣樣品,測(cè)定了其中的PCDD/Fs、PCBs和多氯萘(polychlorinated naphthalenes, PCNs)的濃度。為防止揮發(fā)性較大的化合物在PUF塞中發(fā)生穿透,Alegria等[30]使用雙PUF塞采集并分析了墨西哥南部大氣中的OCPs和PCBs的濃度水平。Xiao等[31]和劉碧蓮等[32]也有相關(guān)報(bào)道,采用雙PUF塞采集大氣中的POPs??偟膩?lái)說(shuō),PUF塞的應(yīng)用較為簡(jiǎn)單、經(jīng)濟(jì)和廣泛,但是PUF塞在使用中仍存在一定的不足:(1)不能吸附低分子量或揮發(fā)性較大的化合物,需要使用其他系列PUF塞進(jìn)行校正;(2)PUF塞的預(yù)處理需要花費(fèi)時(shí)間較長(zhǎng);(3)前處理和萃取時(shí)需要耗費(fèi)大量溶劑[33]。為改進(jìn)這些缺點(diǎn),Elisabeth等[33]提出使用吸附劑浸漬的濾膜(sorbent-impregnated filters, SIFs),其選用浸漬XAD-4樹(shù)脂的玻璃纖維濾膜(XAD-SIFs)作為吸附材料,分析測(cè)定了大氣中的半揮發(fā)有機(jī)物和PAHs,并發(fā)現(xiàn)filter-SIF-SIF-PUF(F-S-S-P)對(duì)半揮發(fā)性有機(jī)物的采集效率優(yōu)于傳統(tǒng)的filter-PUF(F-P),單個(gè)SIF的采集效率約為80%。XAD是一種苯乙烯-二乙烯基共聚物,與PUF塞相比具有較大的保留容量。且XAD-SIFs還具有以下特點(diǎn):可以減小體積,方便樣品的裝卸、運(yùn)輸和儲(chǔ)存,節(jié)約前處理的溶劑使用量。此外,還有研究者提出一些新型的吸附劑來(lái)采集大氣樣品,如Jin等[34]使用類(lèi)似三明治的PUF-ACF-PUF作為氣相吸附材料,采集并測(cè)定韓國(guó)典型背景點(diǎn)大氣中的OCPs。Yagoh等[35]使用活性炭纖維濾紙(activated carbon fiber filter paper, ACFP)和QFF作為顆粒相吸附材料,采集并測(cè)定了日本新瀉地區(qū)大氣中PAHs的組成及含量。
圖1 大氣采樣器:(a)主動(dòng)采樣器[14];(b)PUF被動(dòng)采樣器[1];(c)XAD被動(dòng)采樣器[43]Fig. 1 Air samplers. (a) active air sampler[14]; (b) PUF-disk sampler[1]; (c) XAD-based sampler[43]
1.1.4.2 氣象條件的影響
不同吸附材料的吸附容量和保留能力不同,將直接影響到主動(dòng)采樣器對(duì)大氣中POPs的采集效率。而外界的環(huán)境變化也是不可忽略的影響因素,不同學(xué)者的相關(guān)研究結(jié)果存在明顯差異。Hippelein等[36]發(fā)現(xiàn)在德國(guó)鄉(xiāng)村冬季大氣中PCDD/Fs濃度明顯高于夏季,研究認(rèn)為該分布可能與居民冬季燃煤取暖有關(guān)。Wallenhor等[37]在研究城市地區(qū)大氣中PCDD/Fs的分布特征時(shí),也得到相似的結(jié)論。Umlauf等[38]在波蘭南部的小波蘭地區(qū)和Cheng等[39]在臺(tái)灣新竹的研究均有類(lèi)似結(jié)論。然而,Coleman等[40]通過(guò)對(duì)英國(guó)城市大氣的測(cè)定結(jié)果并未發(fā)現(xiàn)冬季和夏季PCDD/Fs含量有明顯差異,Vilavert等[41]對(duì)西班牙塔拉戈納大氣中PCDD/Fs、PCBs和PCNs的濃度進(jìn)行研究,發(fā)現(xiàn)沒(méi)有明顯的季節(jié)性變化。以上結(jié)果說(shuō)明PCDD/Fs濃度與溫度之間并非存在著固定的規(guī)律。此外,濕度、壓力和風(fēng)向風(fēng)速等氣象條件也是大氣采樣的重要影響因素。Qin等[42]監(jiān)測(cè)中國(guó)大連市大氣中的PCDD/Fs,發(fā)現(xiàn)溫度和壓力是影響大氣中PCDD/Fs濃度的重要影響因素,而濕度和風(fēng)速則無(wú)相關(guān)性。Cindoruk等[16]發(fā)現(xiàn)大氣中PCBs的濃度與溫度、風(fēng)速等氣象因素具有相關(guān)性,尤其是在沿海地區(qū)和半農(nóng)村地區(qū)。因此,在探討氣象因素對(duì)大氣中POPs濃度的影響時(shí),需結(jié)合POPs排放源等因素綜合考慮。
1.2 被動(dòng)大氣采樣
PAS是一種既簡(jiǎn)單又經(jīng)濟(jì)的大氣采樣技術(shù)。PAS是基于被分析物的化學(xué)勢(shì)在原本環(huán)境和采樣介質(zhì)間的差異進(jìn)行的一種采樣技術(shù)[44]。植物作為大氣POPs的被動(dòng)采樣介質(zhì)已被廣泛應(yīng)用于大氣監(jiān)測(cè),趙玉麗等對(duì)地衣、苔蘚、樹(shù)葉、樹(shù)皮等被動(dòng)采樣器在大氣POPs監(jiān)測(cè)中的應(yīng)用作了較為全面的介紹,指出植物被動(dòng)采樣技術(shù)在大氣POPs歷史污染監(jiān)測(cè)中發(fā)揮的重要作用[45]。目前,根據(jù)不同的吸附劑設(shè)計(jì)了相應(yīng)的被動(dòng)采樣裝置,如半滲透膜(semi-permeable membrane devices, SPMD)、PUF、XAD、乙烯-醋酸乙烯酯(ethylene vinyl acetate, EVA)和聚乙烯薄膜(PE)等被動(dòng)采樣器。不同被動(dòng)采樣器的特點(diǎn)如表1所示。
PUF-PAS因其具有原理可靠,制作安裝簡(jiǎn)易,材料、運(yùn)輸成本低廉等優(yōu)點(diǎn)而得到較廣泛應(yīng)用,如圖1(b)[1]。Shoeib等[46]將SPMD、PUF和富含有機(jī)物的土壤3種吸附材料作為被動(dòng)采樣介質(zhì)采集大氣樣品,通過(guò)比較發(fā)現(xiàn)PUF采樣效果最佳。Li等[47]利用PUF-PAS方法采集了中國(guó)東北城市鞍山一個(gè)大型鋼鐵工業(yè)園區(qū)的大氣樣品,并對(duì)其中的PCDD/Fs、PCBs和多溴聯(lián)苯醚(polybrominated diphenyl ethers, PBDEs)的濃度和來(lái)源進(jìn)行了分析和研究。Moussaoui等[48]也利用PUF-PAS采集了阿爾及利亞北部農(nóng)村、城市及工業(yè)區(qū)的大氣樣品,并分析了PCDD/Fs、類(lèi)二惡英PCBs(dioxin-like PCBs, dl-PCBs)及一些農(nóng)藥的污染水平。為擴(kuò)大PUF塞的吸附容量,Harner等[7, 49-50]采用浸漬XAD-4來(lái)改進(jìn)PUF塞(sorbent impregnated polyurethane, SIP)作為吸附材料采集大氣中的含氟化合物,并將此方法應(yīng)用到全球范圍的監(jiān)測(cè)計(jì)劃中。對(duì)于容量相對(duì)較低的PUF塞,更易揮發(fā)的POPs(如六氯苯)在采樣期間容易發(fā)生飽和,尤其是在溫度較高的地方。因此對(duì)于采樣周期較長(zhǎng)的監(jiān)測(cè)項(xiàng)目,可采用XAD采樣器,如圖1(c)[43],其采樣周期可長(zhǎng)達(dá)1年,且已成功應(yīng)用于長(zhǎng)時(shí)間、大尺度的POPs監(jiān)測(cè)[51]。另外還有文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道使用SPMD采樣器進(jìn)行被動(dòng)采樣,該采樣器最開(kāi)始被用于采集水樣,后來(lái)因其環(huán)境影響小、成本低等特點(diǎn)也慢慢被用于研究大空間范圍內(nèi)大氣中的POPs[52-53]。除改進(jìn)吸附材料外,研究者還開(kāi)發(fā)新型的采樣裝置,如Fatma Esen采用自行設(shè)計(jì)的PUF被動(dòng)大氣采樣裝置采集土耳其布爾薩的大氣樣品。此裝置與其他文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道的不同之處在于其形狀和通風(fēng)方法,最大限度地降低了風(fēng)、降雨等環(huán)境因素的干擾,如圖2(a)[54]。另外,為準(zhǔn)確計(jì)算被動(dòng)采樣器的大氣流量,Xiao等[31, 55]研發(fā)了一種新型的利用風(fēng)向采樣的PUF被動(dòng)采樣器(flow-through sampler, FTS),如圖2(b),利用風(fēng)向儀原理,設(shè)計(jì)了可隨風(fēng)向?qū)崟r(shí)旋轉(zhuǎn)的采樣裝置。該采樣器充分利用風(fēng)速來(lái)提高采樣速率,使風(fēng)吹過(guò)采樣介質(zhì)來(lái)達(dá)到顯著加快吸收能力和提供定量信息的目的,其采樣速率能達(dá)到接近于傳統(tǒng)大流量采樣器的水平。為解決PAS無(wú)法分別采集氣相和顆粒相樣品這一缺點(diǎn),Tao等[56]研發(fā)了同時(shí)采集氣態(tài)及顆粒態(tài)被動(dòng)采樣器。此外,該課題組還設(shè)計(jì)了定向大氣PAS,可以采集某個(gè)風(fēng)向上的大氣POPs[57]。
圖2 新型PUF被動(dòng)采樣器[54-55]Fig. 2 New types of PUF passive samplers [54-55]
表1 POPs的大氣被動(dòng)采樣方法比較
相對(duì)于主動(dòng)采樣器,被動(dòng)采樣器無(wú)法精確測(cè)定流量。因此,為精確采樣體積,相關(guān)的校正方法被提出。目前普遍采用大流量采樣器校正的方法或直接用每個(gè)采樣器吸附污染物的質(zhì)量進(jìn)行比較。如對(duì)PUF塞采樣器,可用現(xiàn)場(chǎng)研究和流量模擬模型來(lái)校正[58-59]。還可采用在PUF上加標(biāo)的方法,標(biāo)準(zhǔn)物質(zhì)通常是環(huán)境中存在量極少的化合物,如γ-HCH-d6、PCB-107和PCB-198[58, 60]。
《關(guān)于持久性有機(jī)污染物(POPs)的斯德哥爾摩公約》第16條規(guī)定了為開(kāi)展履約成效評(píng)估而實(shí)施全球POPs監(jiān)測(cè)的要求。現(xiàn)有監(jiān)測(cè)結(jié)果表明,不同國(guó)家采用的大氣中POPs監(jiān)測(cè)方法在采樣和監(jiān)測(cè)技術(shù)等方面還存在差異,監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)的可比對(duì)性在一定程度上影響了履約成效評(píng)估。
2.1 主動(dòng)采樣之間的比較
由于環(huán)境因素等條件的差異,選擇不同的采樣頭(TSP或PM10)可能導(dǎo)致不一樣的采樣結(jié)果。目前有關(guān)不同主動(dòng)采樣法對(duì)大氣中POPs監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)的可比性研究相對(duì)較少,Martinez等[64]報(bào)道了在西班牙8個(gè)采樣點(diǎn)的大氣中TSP和PM10的監(jiān)測(cè)結(jié)果具有可比性。然而,全球范圍內(nèi)各采樣點(diǎn)POPs的來(lái)源及空氣質(zhì)量差異極大,需要有更多實(shí)地驗(yàn)證其可比對(duì)性或提出可比對(duì)的校正系數(shù)。楊復(fù)沫等[65]報(bào)道1999~2000年北京市PM10占TSP的比例平均值為53%,而在地中海沿岸國(guó)家,大氣顆粒物主要是粒徑小于10 μm的顆粒物,PM10/TSP的比值為0.9[66]。Ren等報(bào)道了2009年唐山市大氣中TSP和PM10的監(jiān)測(cè)結(jié)果也具可比性,PCDD/Fs同系物在TSP和PM10中的分布類(lèi)似,∑CPM10/∑CTSP平均值為0.9,說(shuō)明PCDD/Fs傾向于存在于PM10以下顆粒物中。Aristizábal等[68]監(jiān)測(cè)了哥倫比亞西部城市馬尼薩萊斯的大氣中的PCDD/Fs,發(fā)現(xiàn)該城市大氣中的PCDDs與PM10沒(méi)有顯著相關(guān)性。到目前為止,僅有少數(shù)關(guān)于TSP和PM10監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)比較研究的報(bào)道,并且這些比較大都局限在二惡英類(lèi)的監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)比對(duì)上[25],對(duì)其他POPs的比較研究鮮有報(bào)道。因此對(duì)大氣中POPs的監(jiān)測(cè)方法尚需要更深入的比對(duì)研究才能科學(xué)評(píng)估監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)的一致性。
2.2 被動(dòng)采樣之間的比較
被動(dòng)采樣作為主動(dòng)采樣的重要補(bǔ)充手段,已受到廣泛地關(guān)注和應(yīng)用。Shoeib等[46]比較了SPMD、PUF和富含有機(jī)物的土壤3種被動(dòng)采樣介質(zhì),發(fā)現(xiàn)PUF-PAS對(duì)大氣中POPs的采樣效果最佳。Hayward等[69]利用PUF-PAS和XAD-PAS采集了安大略湖南部農(nóng)村的大氣樣品,并分析了其中9種農(nóng)藥的含量,發(fā)現(xiàn)兩者結(jié)果具有一致性。Harner等[7]對(duì)PUF-PAS和SIP-PAS進(jìn)行了比較,發(fā)現(xiàn)兩者對(duì)PCBs采集效率的結(jié)果是類(lèi)似的,但是SIP-PAS對(duì)更易揮發(fā)的化合物的采集效果明顯優(yōu)于PUF-PAS。
2.3 主動(dòng)采樣與被動(dòng)采樣的比較
目前,主動(dòng)采樣被廣泛應(yīng)用于POPs監(jiān)測(cè)活動(dòng),但由于存在需要電力提供等問(wèn)題,不利于在較偏遠(yuǎn)地區(qū)實(shí)施采樣活動(dòng),而被動(dòng)采樣能夠很好地彌補(bǔ)這一缺點(diǎn)而得到迅速發(fā)展。但對(duì)于被動(dòng)采樣能否作為主動(dòng)采樣的重要補(bǔ)充手段,其關(guān)鍵點(diǎn)在于主動(dòng)采樣和被動(dòng)采樣的數(shù)據(jù)是否具有可比性。
據(jù)大多數(shù)相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道證實(shí),主動(dòng)和被動(dòng)采樣的結(jié)果具有可比性。如Gouin等[70]利用大流量AAS和PUF-PAS采集美國(guó)勞倫森大湖的大氣,測(cè)定OCPs、PCBs和PBDEs,發(fā)現(xiàn)2種方法所得的數(shù)據(jù)具有較好的一致性。Levy等[71]利用SPMD、云杉針被動(dòng)采樣和小流量AAS采集了中歐一個(gè)森林中的大氣樣品,發(fā)現(xiàn)主動(dòng)采樣和被動(dòng)采樣所得PCDD/Fs的同系物分布相似。Mari等[29]利用大流量AAS和PUF-PAS在西班牙的巴塞羅納采集了4個(gè)采樣點(diǎn)的大氣樣品,測(cè)定了PCDD/Fs、PCBs和PCNs的濃度,發(fā)現(xiàn)被動(dòng)采樣測(cè)得的濃度水平與主動(dòng)采樣相當(dāng)。Alegria等[30]使用大流量AAS和PUF-PAS采集2002~2004年墨西哥的大氣樣品,發(fā)現(xiàn)2種采樣方法中OCPs的濃度水平相當(dāng)。Hayward等利用4種不同類(lèi)型的采樣方法采集安大略湖南部農(nóng)村的大氣樣品,分別為2種AAS(大流量和小流量泵),2種PAS(PUF和XAD樹(shù)脂)。分析其中9種農(nóng)藥的含量,發(fā)現(xiàn)上述不同采樣方法的結(jié)果具有一致性[69]。He等[72]利用大流量AAS和PUF-PAS采集大氣樣品,通過(guò)單因素方差分析發(fā)現(xiàn)PAHs和OCPs在2種方法中的分布特征無(wú)顯著差異。Xu等[73]采用大流量主動(dòng)采樣和SPMD被動(dòng)采樣,采集中國(guó)大連市的大氣樣品,發(fā)現(xiàn)主動(dòng)和被動(dòng)中的PCBs同系物分布、dl-PCBs和毒性當(dāng)量的主要貢獻(xiàn)者是類(lèi)似的。Zhu等[74]采用大流量主動(dòng)采樣器和SPMD被動(dòng)采樣器采集中國(guó)大連城市的大氣樣品,分析其中的PAHs,發(fā)現(xiàn)主動(dòng)和被動(dòng)中氣相PAHs的主要貢獻(xiàn)者是類(lèi)似的。但是也有文獻(xiàn)發(fā)現(xiàn),由于受到環(huán)境等因素的影響,主動(dòng)采樣和被動(dòng)采樣所得的結(jié)果可能存在差別。Ren等[67]采用大流量主動(dòng)采樣和PUF-PAS對(duì)中國(guó)北方工業(yè)城市唐山空氣中PCDD/Fs的監(jiān)測(cè)發(fā)現(xiàn),兩者的結(jié)果存在差異,推測(cè)可能是隨機(jī)排放源和氣象條件等不確定因素導(dǎo)致的結(jié)果??傮w來(lái)說(shuō),主動(dòng)采樣和被動(dòng)采樣的結(jié)果是具有可比性的,對(duì)于研究大氣中的POPs,被動(dòng)大氣采樣是有效、可靠的補(bǔ)充工具。
目前對(duì)大氣中POPs的采樣方法研究日漸成熟,應(yīng)用相關(guān)技術(shù)廣泛開(kāi)展了各項(xiàng)研究。但依然存在著不少問(wèn)題和困難,如使用不同吸附材料對(duì)大氣中POPs采集效率進(jìn)行對(duì)比研究的文獻(xiàn)報(bào)道很少,新型吸附材料、新型采樣器的研發(fā)也有待加強(qiáng),以滿(mǎn)足多種POPs監(jiān)測(cè)的實(shí)際需求;不同類(lèi)型AAS和PAS采樣方法的對(duì)比研究,TSP和PM10監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)間的可對(duì)比性研究還需進(jìn)一步開(kāi)展,才能更加深入地科學(xué)評(píng)估監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)的一致性;此外,列入斯德哥爾摩公約的POPs已達(dá)26種,由于不同POPs之間揮發(fā)性及降解等特性差異較大,缺少普適性的采樣方法,且不同國(guó)家履約所用的POPs采樣方法還存在差異,監(jiān)測(cè)數(shù)據(jù)的可比對(duì)性影響了履約成效評(píng)估,因此建立統(tǒng)一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的模型工具或者相關(guān)的校正方法研究也亟待深入開(kāi)展。
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◆
Progress on the Sampling Techniques of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Atmosphere
Zhu Qingqing1,2, Liu Guorui1,2, Zhang Xian1,2, Dong Shujun1,2, Gao Lirong1,2, Zheng Minghui1,2,*
1. State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China 2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
Received 29 November 2015 accepted 6 January 2016
Atmosphere is one of the core matrices for global monitoring of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The atmospheric POPs sampling techniques are important for accurately measuring the levels of POPs in the air, which have been rapidly developed in recent years. In this paper, two types of active air sampling (AAS) and passive air sampling (PAS) were reviewed. The development of new adsorbent materials was summarized and the characteristics of different types of samplers were discussed. Moreover, the monitoring data obtained by using different sampling techniques were compared and some issues of the data comparability were proposed.
persistent organic pollutants; atmosphere; active air sampling; passive air sampling
10.7524/AJE.1673-5897.20151129003
國(guó)家自然科學(xué)基金(21361140359,91543108)
朱青青(1990-),女,博士研究生,研究方向?yàn)榄h(huán)境科學(xué),E-mail: qingqzhu@126.com
*通訊作者(Corresponding author), E-mail: zhengmh@rcees.ac.cn
2015-11-29 錄用日期:2016-01-06
1673-5897(2016)2-050-11
X171.5
A
簡(jiǎn)介:鄭明輝(1962—),男,博士,研究員,主要研究方向?yàn)榄h(huán)境化學(xué)。
朱青青, 劉國(guó)瑞, 張憲, 等. 大氣中持久性有機(jī)污染物的采樣技術(shù)進(jìn)展[J]. 生態(tài)毒理學(xué)報(bào),2016, 11(2): 50-60
Zhu Q Q, Liu G R, Zhang X, et al. Progress on the sampling techniques of persistent organic pollutants in atmosphere [J]. Asian Journal of Ecotoxicology, 2016, 11(2): 50-60 (in Chinese)