余廣彬 朱茂杰
摘要簡(jiǎn)述了國(guó)內(nèi)外快速城市化背景下環(huán)境污染的研究現(xiàn)狀,重點(diǎn)分析了城市化對(duì)土壤、大氣、地表水的環(huán)境污染效應(yīng),并提出了城市化與環(huán)境污染效應(yīng)研究的方向。
關(guān)鍵詞城市化;環(huán)境污染;人類活動(dòng)
中圖分類號(hào)S181.3文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼
A文章編號(hào)0517-6611(2015)29-280-03
自工業(yè)革命以來(lái),世界城市化進(jìn)程不斷加速。例如,1780年世界城市化率僅為3.0%,1960年升至33.0%,1990年為42.6%,2010年世界有一半的人口居住在城市(發(fā)展中國(guó)家45.1%,發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家75.2%)。人口從農(nóng)村向城市的遷移在未來(lái)50~100年中仍將繼續(xù),發(fā)展中國(guó)家和地區(qū)尤為突出。預(yù)計(jì)到2030年,世界城市人口比例將達(dá)59.0%。過(guò)去10年,我國(guó)城市化率以年均增長(zhǎng)率1.12%的速度發(fā)展,我國(guó)城市化已進(jìn)入一個(gè)空前高漲時(shí)期。城市環(huán)境質(zhì)量與公眾健康息息相關(guān),快速城市化背景下的環(huán)境污染效應(yīng)成為普遍關(guān)注和研究的熱點(diǎn)。
1城市化過(guò)程中環(huán)境污染效應(yīng)的概述
快速的城市化是生態(tài)環(huán)境污染的主要驅(qū)動(dòng)因子。土壤、大氣和水體與人類活動(dòng)密切相關(guān),是人類生存發(fā)展的三大環(huán)境要素,受城市化過(guò)程的劇烈干擾。城市化導(dǎo)致城市土壤、大氣、地表水和沉積物環(huán)境質(zhì)量不斷惡化。發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的城市生態(tài)環(huán)境質(zhì)量普遍優(yōu)于發(fā)展中國(guó)家,我國(guó)同大多數(shù)的發(fā)展中國(guó)家一樣,城市土壤、大氣、水體存在較嚴(yán)重的環(huán)境污染。這是由于發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家經(jīng)歷了上百年的發(fā)展過(guò)程,其環(huán)境保護(hù)投入較大、環(huán)保設(shè)施完善、環(huán)保技術(shù)成熟、環(huán)保觀念較強(qiáng)等。
2城市化過(guò)程中環(huán)境污染效應(yīng)的研究現(xiàn)狀
2.1土壤環(huán)境污染效應(yīng)
城市土壤在快速城市化和工業(yè)化的背景下,受強(qiáng)烈的人類活動(dòng)影響,如城市建設(shè)、工業(yè)活動(dòng)、交通和日常生活等。城市土壤作為支撐城市發(fā)展和人們?nèi)粘I畹幕A(chǔ)資源,在保證城市健康生活和城市生態(tài)系統(tǒng)可持續(xù)發(fā)展方面扮演著重要的角色。然而,伴隨著經(jīng)濟(jì)的快速發(fā)展和城市進(jìn)程的加速,尤其是在新興國(guó)家,城市環(huán)境正面臨土壤污染的挑戰(zhàn),城市土壤質(zhì)量日益退化,城市化進(jìn)程中的土壤污染效應(yīng)受到了眾多的關(guān)注。城市化伴隨各種途徑和形式的人為影響,使城市土壤性質(zhì)顯著偏離同地帶(區(qū)域)背景土壤的特征。嚴(yán)重的土壤污染特別是金屬污染是城市土壤的重要特征。伴隨工業(yè)生產(chǎn)和高強(qiáng)度農(nóng)業(yè)利用進(jìn)入土壤的有機(jī)污染物,也成為土壤環(huán)境質(zhì)量下降的重要因素。城市土壤已成為接納城市代謝污染物的主要匯。大量污染物在城市土壤中富集,如多環(huán)芳烴、重金屬、氮和磷等。重金屬常被用作檢驗(yàn)城市化對(duì)土壤環(huán)境影響的重要指標(biāo),其中Pb含量被認(rèn)為最能表現(xiàn)城市化過(guò)程對(duì)土壤質(zhì)量演變的影響程度。世界范圍內(nèi),城市土壤均遭受了不同程度的重金屬污染。與發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家和其他發(fā)展中國(guó)家相比,我國(guó)城市的土壤污染較為嚴(yán)重,大多數(shù)重金屬含量為背景值的20倍以上,其中城市土壤Pb的含量高達(dá)25 380 mg/kg,分別為全球頁(yè)巖背景值和我國(guó)土壤背景值的461和1 123倍。通過(guò)對(duì)美國(guó)、英國(guó)、蘇格蘭、威爾士地區(qū)共50個(gè)城市的采樣分析,發(fā)現(xiàn)城市地區(qū)威脅最大的環(huán)境污染來(lái)自Pb、Cd、Hg和PAHs,其中上海和芝加哥城市土壤中Pb的含量分別為自然背景值的8和13倍,呈顯著的城市源特征。城市土壤遭受污染后,也可導(dǎo)致土壤微生物特性的顯著變化。在英國(guó)Berdeen的一項(xiàng)研究表明,與農(nóng)業(yè)土壤相比,城市土壤微生物的基底呼吸作用明顯增強(qiáng),但微生物生物量卻顯著降低,微生物的一些生理生態(tài)參數(shù)明顯升高;Biolog數(shù)據(jù)顯示,城市土壤對(duì)能源碳的消耗量和速度也明顯提高[22]。主成分分析顯示,土壤中有效態(tài)鉛是控制城市與農(nóng)業(yè)土壤微生物特征差異的主要因素,其次為有效態(tài)和有機(jī)態(tài)的鋅、銅和鎳。
2.2大氣環(huán)境污染效應(yīng)
自產(chǎn)業(yè)革命以來(lái),城市工業(yè)迅猛發(fā)展,石油、化石等燃料在城市中大量消耗,導(dǎo)致大氣中CO2和NOx等有害氣體急劇增加,造成城市區(qū)域大氣環(huán)境污染。建筑施工、道路交通等產(chǎn)生的城市揚(yáng)塵、懸浮顆粒物,也使城市大氣環(huán)境進(jìn)一步惡化。與郊區(qū)相比,城市區(qū)域大氣中CO2、SO2和NOx的含量遠(yuǎn)高于郊區(qū)。城市化是導(dǎo)致城市區(qū)域大氣環(huán)境質(zhì)量下降的主要因素。通常,城市中大氣污染物的來(lái)源分為固定源(工廠企業(yè))和流動(dòng)源(交通工具),主要包括工業(yè)生產(chǎn)、交通運(yùn)輸、爐灶、鍋爐等。近年來(lái),隨著城市區(qū)域工廠企業(yè)的搬遷,城市交通工具已經(jīng)成為大氣污染的主要來(lái)源。城市區(qū)域大氣污染物主要有氣溶膠和氣體污染物兩類,包括煙塵、SO2、CO、NOx、PAHs、氟化物、硫酸氣溶膠和重金屬等。其中,城市大氣顆粒攜帶的Hg是土壤、水體等環(huán)境中Hg污染的主要來(lái)源[23-24]。此外,土壤污染物也可通過(guò)揚(yáng)塵或再懸浮進(jìn)入大氣。最近,通過(guò)核探針研究大氣顆粒物的指紋特征,表明上海市大氣顆粒物中大約有31%來(lái)自土壤揚(yáng)塵。隨著汽車尾氣排放的控制和能源結(jié)構(gòu)的調(diào)整,可以預(yù)計(jì)土壤揚(yáng)塵仍將繼續(xù)成為我國(guó)城市大氣污染的主要來(lái)源。
2.3地表水環(huán)境污染效應(yīng)
城市化進(jìn)程中水環(huán)境質(zhì)量狀況的研究已經(jīng)成為環(huán)境科學(xué)家關(guān)注的熱點(diǎn)[26-27]。水體(地表水和沉積物)是城市源污染物的主要受納介質(zhì),在地表水環(huán)境研究中扮演著重要的角色。長(zhǎng)期以來(lái),城市周邊的河流、湖泊和沿海水域一直被當(dāng)作城市代謝污染物稀釋和消耗的最佳自然場(chǎng)所[28]。城市擴(kuò)張已成為非點(diǎn)源污染加重的主要因素[29],城市化已成為僅次于農(nóng)業(yè)的水環(huán)境第二大污染源[30]。因此,城市水體(地表水和沉積物)富集了大量的城市源污染物。世界范圍內(nèi)地表水存在不同程度的污染現(xiàn)象。我國(guó)城市區(qū)域地表水質(zhì)量總體上要優(yōu)于其他發(fā)展中國(guó)家和發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家。根據(jù)2009年《中國(guó)環(huán)境狀況公報(bào)》,2009年全國(guó)地表水污染依然較重,七大水系總體為輕度污染,湖泊富營(yíng)養(yǎng)化問(wèn)題突出,近岸海域總體為輕度污染。與國(guó)家地表水環(huán)境質(zhì)量III類標(biāo)準(zhǔn)相比,營(yíng)養(yǎng)元素(N、P)是我國(guó)地表水的重要污染物。我國(guó)城市區(qū)域地表水中重金屬濃度總體上低于國(guó)家地表水環(huán)境質(zhì)量III標(biāo)準(zhǔn)(GB 3838-2002),但顯著高于美國(guó)EPA規(guī)定的CCC限制[31]。進(jìn)入水體的污染物通過(guò)絮凝、沉積、吸附等作用進(jìn)入水體沉積物[32-35],因此沉積物成為污染物的主要?dú)w宿[36-38],成為污染物的主要匯。與全球頁(yè)巖背景值和我國(guó)淺海沉積物背景值相比,世界各國(guó)城市區(qū)域沉積物存在顯著的重金屬富集現(xiàn)象,大部分重金屬含量為背景值的幾倍到幾十倍??傮w上,我國(guó)和發(fā)展中國(guó)家城市區(qū)域沉積物重金屬含量相對(duì)低于發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家。此外,城市污染物通過(guò)各種途徑(如干濕沉降、地表徑流等)源源不斷地進(jìn)入城市及其周邊水體。地表徑流攜帶的城市源污染物是地表水污染的主要途徑[39-42]。城市區(qū)域內(nèi)存在廣泛的地表封閉與土壤壓實(shí)現(xiàn)象,土壤水分入滲和短期儲(chǔ)蓄緩沖功能減弱或消失[43],地表徑流系數(shù)大幅度增加,從而導(dǎo)致徑流產(chǎn)生[44]。徑流攜帶的污染物負(fù)荷(包括氮磷、有機(jī)污染物、重金屬等)增加[44-45],導(dǎo)致地表水污染加劇。城市地表積水還可能導(dǎo)致有害生物的繁衍,從而直接影響城市居民的身體健康。
3結(jié)語(yǔ)
近年來(lái),城市化對(duì)環(huán)境的影響日益凸顯,我國(guó)由于經(jīng)濟(jì)的持續(xù)增長(zhǎng)和快速的城市化,被稱為“城市化的實(shí)驗(yàn)室”。 時(shí)間尺度上,城市化進(jìn)程表現(xiàn)為:城鎮(zhèn)—小型城市—中型城市—大型城市,但由于時(shí)間跨度長(zhǎng),難以追蹤研究。因此,“空間換時(shí)間”的研究方法將成為研究城市化過(guò)程中環(huán)境污染效應(yīng)的最佳途徑,也可選取同屬一個(gè)地理區(qū)系,且具有相似產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)特征的不同城市化階段的城鎮(zhèn)/城市作為研究對(duì)象。
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