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快速命名(RAN)與閱讀障礙

2015-03-21 04:26南京師范大學文學院江蘇南京210097
文教資料 2015年36期
關(guān)鍵詞:閱讀障礙命名語音

(南京師范大學文學院,江蘇南京210097)

尚永璨

快速命名(RAN)與閱讀障礙

(南京師范大學文學院,江蘇南京210097)

尚永璨

RAN已經(jīng)成為預(yù)測兒童閱讀障礙的最有價值的因素之一。其與語音加工和正字法的關(guān)系是焦點:前者上,一是二者對閱讀障礙的預(yù)測作用強弱,多數(shù)觀點認為語音意識的作用更突出;二是二者的相互關(guān)系,部分認為RAN應(yīng)該歸為語音加工的一部分;而包括雙重缺陷理論在內(nèi)的研究結(jié)果表明RAN獨立于語音加工技能的,但持此觀點的也未厘清二者在閱讀障礙中的相對作用,所以兩種觀點都有待進一步研究。后者上,研究認為造成閱讀能力低下的認知過程在于正字法表征的缺陷和形音之間聯(lián)系形成的障礙;在正字法透明的語言中,RAN的作用比語音加工更重要,且與反應(yīng)時間之間的聯(lián)系比和流暢度更密切。此外,部分關(guān)于RAN和閱讀能力相互關(guān)系的縱向研究表明二者間的關(guān)系隨年齡增長有更明顯的趨勢。最后在RAN對閱讀兩個成分(字詞閱讀和閱讀理解)的貢獻上尚存爭議,部分認為對兩個成分都有貢獻,部分認為僅對單詞識別有預(yù)測作用。

快速命名(RAN)閱讀障礙語音加工正字法

閱讀障礙(Reading Disability,簡稱RD)分為獲得性閱讀障礙障礙(Accquired Dyslexia,簡稱AD)和發(fā)展性閱讀障礙(Developmental Dyslexia,簡稱DD)。前者指的是由于后天腦損傷或疾病引起的閱讀困難;后者是指“某些兒童具有正常的智力水平和接受教育的機會,沒有明顯的神經(jīng)或器質(zhì)上的損傷,卻在標準閱讀測驗上的成績顯著低于正常讀者”(Habib,M 2000)[1]2373-2399。一般說的閱讀障礙指的是后者,也是本文所指。Stevenson H W等(1982)[2]1164-1181對漢語、日語、英語兒童進行的研究顯示,學齡階段兒童閱讀障礙的發(fā)生率為5%-10%。Lagae(2008)[3]1259-1268對北美“智力正常,接受傳統(tǒng)的學校教育,擁有完整的聽力、視力,以及足夠的積極性和社交機會”的閱讀障礙兒童進行研究的結(jié)果表明,學齡階段的發(fā)生率為5%—12%。

薄弱的語音意識(Phonological Awareness,簡稱PA)首先被證實為發(fā)展性閱讀障礙的主要原因之一,但是有些語音意識正常的兒童也具有閱讀障礙。后續(xù)的研究表明,快速命名(Rapid Automatized Naming,以下簡稱RAN)上的缺陷或許也會導致閱讀障礙。

RAN的概念于1966年被Geschwind和Fusillo首次提出(Geschwind and Fusillo 1966)[4]137-146;隨后,Denckla和Rudel(1972)發(fā)展了RAN測試,指的是個體對物體、圖片、顏色、字母、數(shù)字盡可能快地進行命名[5]164-176。也有其他術(shù)語,比如:快速命名(Rapid Naming)、快速系列命名(Rapid Serial Naming)、系列命名(Serial Naming)等等。目前研究人員通常采取的測試方法有:RAN(Denckla,Rudel 1974)[6]186-202、RAN-RAS(Rapid Alternate Stimulus,快速交替刺激,Wolf and Denckla 2005)[7]、CTOPP(Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing,語音加工綜合測試,Wagner et al.1999))[8],這些測試根據(jù)研究視角的不同而有細微的差別。

一、強有力的預(yù)測因素

Denckla and Rudel(1972,1974,1976)[9]將RAN作為閱讀能力的預(yù)測而進行的一系列研究“推進了RAN在教育范圍內(nèi)的研究領(lǐng)域”(Denckla and Cutting 1999)[10]29-42。部分研究已經(jīng)證明了RAN和閱讀準確性之間的重要關(guān)聯(lián)(Neuhaus et al.2001)[11]490-504、RAN和閱讀理解力之間的關(guān)聯(lián)(Georgiou et al.2010[12]359-373;Neuhaus et al.2001[13]490-504)、RAN和閱讀速度之間的關(guān)系(Wimmer 1993)[14]1-34。這些與閱讀之間相關(guān)聯(lián)的強有力的證據(jù)已經(jīng)使得RAN被牢固確立為閱讀能力強有力的預(yù)測因素(Cardoso-Martins and Pennington 2004[15]27-52;de Jong and van der Leij 1999[16]450-476;Kirby et al.2003[17]453-464;Vaessen et al.2010[18]827-842;Verhagen et al.2010[19]59-80)。

Frijters et al.(2011)[20]150-166研究稱,和在典型發(fā)展的兒童身上得到的體現(xiàn)相比,RAN和閱讀之間的關(guān)聯(lián)在閱讀障礙兒童身上表現(xiàn)得更加明顯。RAN已經(jīng)成為預(yù)測兒童閱讀障礙的最有價值的因素之一(de Jong and van der Leij 2003[21]22-40.;Puolakanaho et al.2007[22]353-370)

Wolf和Denckla(2005)[23]曾提出,RAN的認知構(gòu)成包括注意力感知覺、語義和運動加工。每一個部分對于RAN任務(wù)的完成都是至關(guān)重要的。而近期的研究的焦點則是,RAN測試中發(fā)音時間(Articulation Time)和停頓時間(Pause Time)的相對貢獻也是至關(guān)重要的。Neuhaus et al.(2001a)[24]490-504將停頓時間定義為“正確的連續(xù)發(fā)音間停頓時間的總合”,而將發(fā)音時間定義為“對于RAN任務(wù)中的刺激進行反應(yīng)而正確發(fā)音的時間長度的總合”。一些研究表明,停頓時間在有無閱讀障礙癥的兒童身上的表現(xiàn)有著明顯的差異。Cobbold et al.等(Cobbold et al.2003[25]165-176;Clarke et al.2005[26]73-86;Georgiou et al.2006[27]199-220)的研究表明:停頓時間比發(fā)音時間對閱讀能力有更好的預(yù)測作用。Neuhaus和Swank(2002)[28]158-174經(jīng)過一個被試規(guī)模較大的實驗之后稱,在字母命名和實物命名任務(wù)中,停頓時間對閱讀障礙的預(yù)測作用遠重要于發(fā)音時間。當然,在一些研究結(jié)論中,也有支持發(fā)音時間的,這些沖突的觀點表明,應(yīng)該更加明確RAN的各個因素在閱讀能力預(yù)測中所占的比重。

二、語音意識、RAN和閱讀能力

語音加工(Phonological Processing)指的是個體對語言的語音信息的運用技能。研究者發(fā)現(xiàn),有三種語音加工技能與閱讀能力呈正相關(guān):(1)語音意識,(2)語音記憶,(3)獲取語音信息的速率。而語音意識被認為是語音加工的主要技能。語音意識(Phonological Awareness),是一種有意識檢測并且操縱語音的能力(Liberman,Shankweiler 1985[29]8-17),是閱讀能力正常發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)。語音意識也包含不同的成分,比如首尾韻的感知和發(fā)音,音節(jié)的整合、分離和添加,音素的刪除、替換、位置辨別。所以,也有人將語音意識定義為“對言語中詞匯的語音結(jié)構(gòu)的敏感性或明確的意識”(Torgesen et al. 1994)[30]276-286。如前文所說,薄弱的語音意識(Phonological Awareness,簡稱PA)首先被證實為閱讀障礙的主要原因之一。

有觀點認為,語音意識對閱讀的預(yù)測作用更突出。Wolf和Bowers(1999)[31]415-438以125名三到四年級的兒童為被試對象,分為兩組,分別為患有閱讀障礙癥和無閱讀障礙癥的兒童。研究結(jié)果表明:語音意識在兩組中對詞匯閱讀都是重要的預(yù)測因素;但是RAN只對患有閱讀障礙癥的兒童的閱讀能力有預(yù)測作用。

另一些研究者認為,RAN任務(wù)主要評估的是對長期記憶中存儲的語音信息進行提取和復(fù)原的速率,或者說是顯示通達記憶中的語音信息的速度,所以應(yīng)該和語音意識、語音記憶一起,被視為語音加工的一部分(Torgesen et al. 1994[32]276-286;Wagner and Torgesen 1987[33])。這一觀點也受到了挑戰(zhàn)。

Bowers和Wolf(1993)[34]69-85提出雙重缺陷理論(Double Deficit Hypothesis,簡稱DDH),具有閱讀困難的兒童必有語音缺陷(尤其是語音意識缺陷)和命名缺陷中的一種或同時具有這兩種缺陷。他們認為RAN至少在一定程度上是獨立于語音加工技能的。Cirino et al.(2005)[35]29-44也認為,RAN和語音意識是相對獨立的。二者對閱讀的影響力大小取決于閱讀任務(wù)的本質(zhì)。語音意識的測量對不計時的閱讀能力有很好的預(yù)測,而RAN測試則對有時間限制的閱讀有好的預(yù)測作用。另外,一些研究也發(fā)現(xiàn),語音技能與快速命名,實則是預(yù)測閱讀的不同部分。Bjarte和Furnes等人(2011)[36]85-95認為語音意識,通常是預(yù)測閱讀的準確性,而快速命名,通常是關(guān)注閱讀的流暢性。應(yīng)該看到,持后面一種觀點的對于RAN障礙與語音加工障礙在閱讀障礙中的相對作用亦未厘清,所以雙重障礙假設(shè)也面臨著爭議,而且該假設(shè)很少經(jīng)過閱讀年齡控制組的檢驗。

三、正字法、RAN和閱讀能力

正字法(Orthographic)是使文字的拼讀和書寫合于標準的方法。Wolf(1997)[37]67-92他們認為造成閱讀能力低下的認知過程在于正字法表征的缺陷和形音之間聯(lián)系形成的障礙,這二者是閱讀的關(guān)鍵。其在分析快速命名任務(wù)時特別提到了正字法的自動提取,換句話說,有快速命名缺陷的閱讀障礙兒童可能沒有形成一個穩(wěn)定的、牢固的正字法表征,因而無法快速提取。

正字法深度(Orthographical Depth)是指詞的形態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu)與音位結(jié)構(gòu)之間的一致程度或透明程度,亦即由形知音的程度。Forst,Katz和Bentin(1987)[38]104-114提出,各種書面語言的正字法深度可以視為一個由淺至深的連續(xù)體,每一種語言的正字法深度都可以在這個連續(xù)體中找到自己的位置。透明文字的字形單元與語音單元均一一對應(yīng),一個字形單元只代表一個語音單元,如意大利語、西班牙語。不透明文字的形音對應(yīng)規(guī)則與其相反,相似的拼寫表示相同的詞素卻表示不同的音位,詞形和詞音的關(guān)系較少透明,如英語、漢語。Kubozono(1996)[39]77-94的跨語言研究表明,不同人群的正字法知識對于閱讀能力起著重要的作用。不同語言的研究(Brizzolara et al.2006[40]141-149;Holopainen et al.2001[41]401-413;M?Ller and Brady 2001[42]757-799;Tressoldi et al.2001[43]414-417;Wimmer 1993[44]1-34;Wimmer and Mayringer 2001[45])都認為,在正字法透明的語言中,閱讀速度更快(Castles and Coltheart 2004)[46]77-111。

一個針對德語患有閱讀障礙的兒童進行的研究表明:在透明正字法的語言中,個體在語音意識上的差異對閱讀能力的影響是微不足道的,而在RAN方面的差異則至關(guān)重要(Wimmer 1993)[47]1-134。這一結(jié)果也得到了其他研究的證實,因此盡管如前文中所提到的,在大多數(shù)語言中,語音意識對閱讀的預(yù)測作用更突出。但是因為受到正字法的影響,在擁有透明正字法的語言中,RAN還是非常重要的。Manis et al.(1999)[48]129-157強調(diào)這是正字法加工的作用,他認為RAN的核心本質(zhì)是符號及其命名之間的關(guān)聯(lián)是任意的。也就是說,如果閱讀任務(wù)包含更多任意的形-音連接任務(wù)(閱讀真詞和假詞),那么RAN和閱讀能力之間的關(guān)系將更加顯著。

Snowling and Griffiths(2003)[49]通過實驗進一步發(fā)現(xiàn),有閱讀障礙癥的兒童,尤其是英語兒童,在詞長較長的真詞和假詞的準確發(fā)音上都有問題。而在透明語言中,有閱讀障礙的兒童在準確性上問題不突出,但流暢度有所下降,相對的發(fā)音時長也是有所增加,比典型發(fā)展兒童讀得慢得多。Georgiou et al.(2009)[50]508-534也認為,在透明正字法的語言中,RAN與反應(yīng)時間之間的聯(lián)系更密切,而不是和口語的流暢度。另外一些研究(Bowers et al.1999[51]31-53;Manis et al.1999[52]401-429.;Sunseth and Bowers 2002[53]115-128)也表明,有RAN缺陷的兒童在正字法加工中的反應(yīng)表現(xiàn)明顯弱于典型發(fā)展兒童。但是,另一些研究(Bowey and Miller 2007[54]185-199;Cunningham et al.2002[55]508-534)并不支持這個觀點。因此,必須要厘清透明度不同的正字法之間的區(qū)別,以及數(shù)據(jù)類型(流暢度和反應(yīng)時間)之間的差距,才能理解RAN和閱讀之間的關(guān)系。

四、二者關(guān)系的縱向發(fā)展結(jié)果

RAN與閱讀之間的關(guān)系是隨著時間而改變的(Georgiou et al.2009)[56]508-534。Torgesen,et al.(1997)[57]161-185發(fā)現(xiàn),盡管語音意識和快速命名都對閱讀能力有重要的預(yù)測作用,但是在兒童閱讀的早期階段,RAN和閱讀能力之間的關(guān)系并不明顯。Kirby et al.(2003)[58]453-464在一個縱向研究中選取了從幼兒園到小學五年級的被試,發(fā)現(xiàn)RAN和閱讀之間的聯(lián)系有一個增長。相同的結(jié)論也被其他研究證實(Landerl and Wimmer 2008[59]150-161;Van den Bos et al.2002[60]25-49)。Bowey etal.(2005)[61]400-422認為,在閱讀發(fā)展的初級階段,字母知識和語音加工能力都對RAN和閱讀之間的關(guān)系有影響,而后期階段,主要是語音加工能力發(fā)揮作用。但同時也有研究者稱,RAN對一年級和二年級的兒童的閱讀有著很強的預(yù)測作用,這種聯(lián)系在三年級到四年級期間逐步減弱(Georgiou et al.2008b[62]325-360;Roman et al.2009[63]96-113;Torgesen et al.1997[64]161-185)。只不過這樣的例外沒有經(jīng)過更多實驗的驗證,還需要大量的實證工作(Georgiou et al.2009)[65]508-534。

五、RAN對閱讀兩個成分的貢獻

閱讀障礙者的缺陷類型牽涉到閱讀的兩個主要成分:字詞閱讀(也稱解碼的技能)和閱讀理解(Lundberg 2002)[66]1-13。字詞閱讀是字形激活語音的過程,而閱讀理解涉及字詞識別、語音譯碼和理解能力,是通過語音激活和聯(lián)結(jié)獲取意義的過程。字詞閱讀、閱讀理解和RAN之間的關(guān)系尚存爭議。有觀點認為,熟練閱讀需要準確且自動提取形音,這樣閱讀者的注意力才能集中到意義和內(nèi)容上,且字詞閱讀和閱讀理解是分開的、序列的加工過程(Dudley and Mather 2005)[67]22-27;因此RAN對字詞閱讀和閱讀理解都有貢獻(Wolf and Bowers 1999)[68]22-27。但另一些研究認為RAN和閱讀理解沒有關(guān)系,它僅對單詞識別有預(yù)測作用,如Meyer(1998)的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)RAN缺陷僅預(yù)測單詞識別[69]415-438。

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