翻譯佛教：李提摩太對《西游記》的基督教詮釋
2014-06-01 10:56黎子鵬
文貝:比較文學與比較文化 2014年2期
黎子鵬
（香港中文大學）
翻譯佛教：李提摩太對《西游記》的基督教詮釋
黎子鵬
（香港中文大學）
英國浸禮會傳教士李提摩太（Timothy Richard，1845—1919）在華傳教45年，1913年 英譯 了中國 四大 古典名 著之 一的《西 游記》，取 名 為A Mission to Heaven
：A Great Chinese Epic and Allegory
（《天 國 求 經(jīng) 記 ：偉 大 的 漢 語 史 詩 及 寓 言 》）。 李 提 摩 太 把 《西 游記》理解為一個基督教朝圣寓言故事，描述了一群認罪悔改的罪人踏上天國朝圣之旅，為的是“把毫無希望的罪人轉(zhuǎn)化為合乎天國的圣人”。李提摩太對這部充斥著佛教、道教象征和理念的中國名著進行了驚世駭俗的基督教詮釋。李提摩太的《天國求經(jīng)記》乃《西游記》最早的英譯本之一，但甚少受到學界，尤其是英語世界的關注。本文將考察李提摩太對《西游記》中佛教元素的基督教解讀，揭示其在20世紀初期為推進基督教與佛教對話，以及宗教比較研究方面所作的努力。《西游記》；《天國求經(jīng)記》；李提摩太；耶佛對話；比較宗教
Notes on Author：John T．P．Lai is an associate Professor in the Department of Cultural and Religious Studies，Chinese University of Hong Kong．His research and teaching revolve around the interdisciplinary study of religion，literature and translation．He has published two monographs，Negotiating Religious Gaps:The Enterprise of Translating Christian Tracts by Protestant Missionaries in Nineteenth-century China
（2012），The Afterlife of a Classic:A Critical Study of the Late-Qing Chinese Translations of
The Pilgrim's Progress（in Chinese）（2012）．1．Introduction
Translation constitutes，instead of an innocent or a purely linguistic activity，a form of intercultural mediation taking place in a specific social and cultural context，David Limon， “Translators as Cultural Mediators：Wish or Reality？A Question for Translation Studies”，eds．Daniel Gile，Gyde Hansen and Nike K．Pokorn，（Amsterdam/Philadelphia：John Benjamins Publishing Company，2010），29．and inevitably involves the negotiation of massive cultural and ideological divides，which is made manifest in the literary translations by missionaries to China．The Journey to the West
（Xiyouji
西 游 記 ；hereafterJourney to the West
），The Journey to the West narrates the legendary pilgrimage of Xuanzang（玄奘），a Tang Dynasty Buddhist monk，who travels to the“Western Heaven”（India）to fetch true scriptures（Buddhist sūtras），with the superhuman assistance of three disciples，namely Sun Wukong（孫悟空），or，the Monkey，Zhu Wuneng（豬悟能），or the Pig，and Sha Wujing（沙悟凈），or ShaMonk，together with the Dragon Horse．For a succinct discussion of its major characters and themes，see William H．Nienhauser，Jr．，ed．，The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature（Bloomington：Indiana University Press，1986），pp．413 417．For the purpose of textual comparison，this paper will refer to（明）吳承恩Wu Cheng’en，《西游記》Xiyouji［The Journey to the West］（香港［Hong Kong］：中華書局［Zhonghua Book Company］，2007），which is based on the Ming Dynasty Shide Tang（世德堂）edition；黃周星Huang Zhouxing annotate，《西游記》Xiyouji［The Journey to the West］（北京［Beijing］：中華書局［Zhonghua Book Company］，2009），which is based on the Qing Dynasty Xiyou zhengdao shu（西游證道
書），and Anthony Yu's authoritative four-volume English translation The Journey to the West（Chicago and London：University of Chicago Press，1977 1983）．For the discussion of the source texts for Mission to Heaven，see胡淳艷Hu Chunyan，王慧Wang Hui，〈佛耶之間——李提摩太《天國之行》的翻譯傳播〉“Fo Ye zhi jian：Li Timotai Tianguo zhi xing de fanyi chuanbo”［Betweenconventionally acclaimed as one of the four greatclassical novels of Chinese③literature，The other three works are（紅 樓 夢 ），（三國 演義 ），and（水滸傳 ）．See Andrew H．Plaks，（Princeton：Princeton University Press，1987）．was partially translated in 1913 by Timothy Richard（1845 1919），Timothy Richard was instrumental in the reform movement and modernization of China in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries．For twenty-five years the secretary of Christian Literature Society（Guangxue hui廣學會 ）in Shanghai，Timothy Richard made great advancements in its publication operations，with a distinct publication strategy targeting literati and officials．Richard influenced the Hundred Days Reform（1898）by his voluminous publications，for which the Chinese literati had an enormous demand．His most influential and widely circulated work was a translation of Robert Mackenzie's，entitled泰西新史 攬要 （1894）．The book was submitted by Kang Youwei康 有 為 （1858 1927）to the Guangxu Emperor who studied it with care and was very impressed．Required reading for the Changsha literary examination，it was even pirated repeatedly to satisfy the huge social demand，and some one million copies were sold in total．For the life and work of Richard，see Timothy Richard，（London：T．Fisher Unwin，1916）；Timothy Richard，（2 vols．）（Shanghai：Christian Literature Society，1907）；William Edward Soothill，，，（London：Seeley Service，1926）；Paul R．Bohr，，1876 1884（Cambridge，M．A．：East Asian Research Center，Harvard University，1972）；Patrick Hanan，（New York：Columbia University Press，2004），76 77．for 45 years a Welsh Baptist missionary to China，under the title
A Mission to Heaven:A Great Chinese Epic and Allegory
（hereafterMission to Heaven
）．Richard provides a fairly detailed translation of the first seven chapters，depicting the havocs in heaven that the Monkey caused，the sins he committed and the punishment he received，and the last three chapters，describing how the pilgrims arrived at the Western Heaven，brought back the scriptures and finally got canonized．The rest of the novel is heavily abridged．See Timothy Richard trans．，（Shanghai：Christian Literature Society，1913）．An adapted version ofwas published entitled（North Clarendon，VT：Tuttle Publishing，2008）．It should be noted that the novel has been abridged from 100 chapters to 26，while Richard's introduction，most of the translator notes and special terms embedded with Christian implication were removed．Deeply appreciative of its literary value，Richard regards the work as“one of the world's great masterpieces of literatureand must be classed with the Epics of Homer，Dante，and Milton，and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress．Timothy Richard trans．，，Advertisement：Standard Books on Buddhism．Journey to the West
，as Anthony Yu has succinctly suggested，can be read on at least three levels：a tale of physical travel and adventure，a story of Buddhist karma and redemption，and an allegory of philosophical and alchemical self-cultivation． Anthony C．Yu，“Two Literary Examples of Religious Pilgrimage：The Commedia and The Journey to the West”，in Yu，（New York：Columbia University Press，2009），140．Timothy Richard，however，interprets the whole novel as a Christian allegory of pilgrimage，depicting a group of converted sinners who travel to heaven for“the transformation of character f rom very unpromising materials into saints fit for Heaven．”Timothy Richard trans．，，p．xxvii．Richard further elaborates the transformation of individual characters，“turning the proud，masterful monkey to repentance and a right use of his intellectual gifts，converting the low，selfish tastes of the pig into desires for high self-sacrifice，changing the conceit of the dolphin into humility and the stupidity of the dragon into usefulness，so that after all have led lives of service for the salvation of men，they are received into heaven where God rewards them with immortal glory．”See Timothy Richard，，343 344．The allegory is claimed to be constructed on“profound Christian philosophy”，Timothy Richard，，343．with its author being a“Christian who sought to evangelize China．”In this connection，Richard offers an ardently provocative Christian interpretation ofJourney to the West
for this classical work of Chinese fiction deeply embedded with Buddhist and Daoist symbolism and conception．Being one of the earliest English translations ofJourney to the West
， The first known English translation is Samuel I．Woodbridge trans．，；，（Shanghai：North-China Herald Of fice，1895），which is the translation of chapters 10 and 11．Herbert Giles translated parts of chapters 7 and 98 for his（New York：D．Appleton and Company，1901），282 287．In the mid 20century，a popular abridged translation known aswas produced by Arthur Waley．See Arthur Waley trans．，（New York：Grove Press，1958）．Richard'sMission to Heaven
has hitherto received little academic attention，particularly in the English speaking world．See于懷 瑾Yu Huaijin，〈論 李提摩太對 《西 游 記 》的 詮 釋 〉“Lun Li Timotai duide quanshi”［Timothy Richard's Interpretation and Translation of］（Master Thesis，Capital Normal University，China，2007）；胡 淳艷Hu Chunyan，王 慧Wang Hui，〈佛耶之間 —— 李提 摩 太 《天 國 之 行 》的 翻 譯 傳 播 〉“Fo Ye zhi jian:Li Timotaide fanyi chuanbo” ［Between Buddhism and Christianity：The Translation and Distribution of Timothy Richard's］，236 251；李暉Li Hui，〈“永 生”的寓 喻敘事 ：淺 析李提 （轉(zhuǎn)下 頁）Byinvestigating Richard's Christian interpretation of the Buddhist elements inJourney to the West
，this paper attempts to demonstrate Richard's efforts in promoting the Christian-Buddhist dialogue and comparative study of religions in the early twentieth century．132．Mahayana Christianity and Buddhist Trinity
2．1 Julai as Christ，the Incarnate God
An omnipotent figure in the novel，Julai（Rulai如 來Tathāgata）is instrumental in settling the heavenly havoc caused by Sun Wukong（孫 悟 空 ），or，the Monkey，and provides the sacred scriptures for the pilgrims from the East．Literally“the absolute come”and being one of the highest titles of Buddha，“Julai”is subtly distinguished from“Fo”（佛B(yǎng)uddha）in Mission toHeaven
in order to accommodate the“Amitabha Trinity”proposed by Timothy Richard．While“Fo”is said to be the“Supreme God of the Buddhists”，Julai，also called the“Mighty One” （大 勢 智Mahasthamaprapta），puts an end to death and to the possibility of reincarnation，and ascends to Heaven to sit on the right hand of God．In New Testament of Higher Buddhism，Richard suggests that the term Julai should be best rendered as“Messiah in English，as it literally means the‘Model Come，’i．e．the True Model become Incarnate”，or simply the“incarnate God”．Timothy Richard，，66．In other words，Richard attempts to equate Julai the Buddha with the Christian notions of“incarnate God”or“Messiah”who was born on earth to provide the true model for humankind to understand and follow God，and ultimately ascended to heaven to sit on the right hand of God，as the second person of the Christian Trinity．In line with the aforementioned interpretation，Richard addresses Julai as the“Incarnated Model”inMission to Heaven
．For the illustration of Julai（如來 佛 ）in chapter 58，Richard supplies a caption embedded with Christian implication，“The Incarnate One．With the Dove settling down on Him．The Dove shows that the original artist connected the Epic with the Gospel Narrative．” Timothy Richard trans．，，facing p．242．A similar dove can be found above the head of Julai in the illustration facing p．105，depicting“Buddha Provides Sacred Scriptures for the Salvation of Men．”By mentioning“Gospel Narrative”，Richard makes explicit reference to the Gospel of John which describes the descent of a dove，symbolizing the Holy Spirit，upon Jesus Christ at his baptism：“And John bare record，saying，I saw the Spirit descending from heaven like a dove，and it abode upon him．” （John 1：32）In doing so，Richard establishes a direct intertextual relation betweenMission to Heaven
and the biblical account to reinforce the proposed connection between Julai and Christ．Other than using illustrations to construct the linkage between Julai and Christ，Richard applies Christianized notions to translate the Buddhist concept of scriptures．In chapter 8，Julai announces that he had three baskets of scriptures，including a basket of vinaya（fa
法 ）which speaks of Heaven，a basket of sātras（lun
論 ）which tells of the Earth and a basket of sutras（jing
經(jīng) ）which redeems the damned．Anthony C．Yu trans．，，vol．1，184．This passage was translated by Richard as“I have a Sacred Book，which is a guide to Virtue，and which discusses the three realms of saints in heaven，of men on earth，and of demons and the lost below．”Timothy Richard trans．，，106．With the deliberate replacement of the Buddhist concept of“three baskets of scriptures”by“a Sacred Book”，the multiplicity of Buddhist scriptures has been reduced to a singular canonical book，reminiscent of the Bible in Christianity．This translation might even convey the message that asingle sacred book would suffice for the governance of all the heavenly and earthly realms．In addition to the provision of sacred scripture，Julai prepares for the pilgrim master several precious Buddhist objects，two of which are the“embroidered cassock”which can protect the wearer from falling back into the wheel of trans-migration and the“nine-ring priestly staff”which can keep the holder from meeting harm．These two objects have been rendered in Missionto Heaven
as“A cassock of Gospel Peace，which would save the Scripture Messenger from death and re-incarnation”and“A pastoral staf f，which would save him f rom fatal danger．”Supplemented by the translator，the term“Gospel Peace”makes direct biblical reference to Ephesians 6：15，“And your feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace，”while the“pastoral staff”alludes to the staff of the Lord，the Great Shepherd，in Psalm 23：4，“thy rod and thy staff they comfort me．”Henceforth these originally Buddhist objects have been given profound Christian association and imagination．By highlighting that the cassock of Gospel Peace may save the Scripture Messenger from death and re-incarnation，Richard not only foregrounds the saving power of the Christian gospel，but also affirms his argument that Julai possesses the attributes of Christ as“God incarnate，putting an end to death and transgression，and opening the way direct［sic］to immortality and Heaven，without a series of incarnations．”Richard's Trinitarian model becomes further complicated in chapter 7，with the first encounter between the Monkey and Julai who calls himself Shakyamuni．Julai opens the conversation with a self-introduction， “I am Sākyamuni，the Venerable One from the Western Region of Ultimate Bliss．”InMission to Heaven
Julai says，“I am Shakyamuni，from the happiest Paradise in the West．Praise be to Amitabha．”The expression“Praise be to Amitabha”，in Sanskrit“Namah Amitabha”（南 無 阿 彌 陀 佛 ），carries profound religious implication．The Sanskrit term“Namah”means“paying homage to，bow to，or make obeisance”，while“Amitabha”，literally“boundless light”and“boundless life”，refers to the Buddha in the Land of Ultimate Bliss（Pure Land），whereall beings enjoy unbounded happiness．At this particular point，Richard supplies a translator's note，reminding the readers to“note the distinction between Shakyamuni and Amitabha．”Timothy Richard trans．，，96．With regards to“Shakyamuni”，Richard，in the last chapter of the novel，again provides a footnote elucidating that Shakyamuni of Higher Buddhism rose f rom the dead after three days．The claim about Shakyamuni's resurrection f rom the dead further strengthens Richard's advocated connection between Shakyamuni（Julai）and Christ． Ibid．，360．InChapter XI（God's Dwelling Place），when the name Sakyamuni appeared in the passage，Richard added the footnote“Kern says he had not the slightest doubt that by“Sakyamuni”here is meant the Supreme Being，God of gods，Almighty and All-wise（Sacred Books of the East，vol．xxi，Introduction，28）．”See Timothy Richard，，190．Concerning“Amitahba”，Richard defines him as“supreme in Paradise（Western Heaven）”．While Amitabha does not appear as a character inMission to Heaven
，the translator's annotation“note the distinction between Shakyamuni and Amitabha”highlights the supreme presence of Amitabha and the distinction between Julai and Amitabha in the Buddhist pantheon．The suggestion that Amitabha，the most high God worthy of Julai's praises，would also be reminiscent of the praise offered by Jesus to his Heavenly Father．Consequently Richard takes full advantage of the originally formulaic line“Namah Amitabha”，which is turned into“Praise be to Amitabha”，for the sake of affirming his model of“Amitabha Trinity”in Mahayana Buddhism．The Mahayana Trinitarian model，however，cannot perfectly match every scenario of the novel．In the introduction ofMission to Heaven
，Richard not only compares Julai with Christ（Messiah），but also refers Julai to Mileh Fo（彌勒 佛Maitreya）．Timothy Richard trans．，，xxxvi．Nonetheless，Mileh Fo，in the same way as Julai，appears as a distinct character in the novel．In chapter 66，the Monkey，failing to defeat the Thunder Demon，sees a bright cloud and heard a heavenly voice，“This was no other than MILEH FO（MESSIAH），THE MOST HONOURED IN THEPARADISE OF THE WEST．”Timothy Richard trans．，，260．By doing so，Mileh Fo has been explicitly equated with the Christian Messiah．It is worth pointing out that there has been longstanding attempt to associate Maitreya with Messiah．William Soothill，for instance，defines Maitreya as“The Buddhist Messiah，or next Buddha，now in the Tusita heaven，who is to come 5，000 years after the nirvāna of Sākyamuni．”William Edward Soothill comp．，，456．However，the problem in this example lies in the potential textual conflict that both Julai and Mileh Fo，two distinct characters in the novel，are the Buddhist equivalents of the Christian Messiah，even carrying the implication that the two are identical．Apparently Richard was aware of the necessity of reconciling such a textual inconsistency．Asa matter of fact，the capitalized line above was translated from the Qing Dynasty editionJourney to the West
，entitledXiyou zhengdao shu
（西 游 證 道 書 ），which only introduces Mileh Fo as the highly honoured one in paradise，worthy of all hail．However，this is merely the rendition of the last two lines of the original eight-lined poem in the Ming Dynasty Shide Tang（世 德 堂 ）edition which depicts Maitreya as a joyous stoutish Buddha． “Huge ears，jutting jaw，and a squarelike face；/Broad shoulders，large belly，and a stoutish frame．．．First among those honored in paradise，/All hail to Maitreya，the laughing priest！”Anthony C．Yu trans．，，vol．3，266．Richard's selection of the more concise portrayal of Maitreya from the Qing edition seems intentionally to blur the distinction between the two Messianic figures，Julai and Mileh Fo．In so doing，the figure of Maitreya has been skillfully manipulated to cater for Richard's Christian interpretation ofMission to Heaven
，particularly the proposed Mahayana Trinitarian model．2．2 Kwanyin as the Holy Spirit
Bodhisattva Kwanyin（Avalokitasvara）is regarded as the third member of the“Amitabha Trinity”of Mahayana Buddhism，according to Richard'sNew Testament of Higher Buddhism
．Timothy Richard，，12 13．A vivid image of Richard's interpretation，the illustration of Kwanyin in chapter 12 ofMission to Heaven
is given a caption claiming that the dove and rosary serve as the symbols of Holy Spirit．Timothy Richard trans．，，facing p．133．The dove associated with Kwanyin resonates our previous discussion of the dove settling upon Julai，alluding to the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John．While Julai and Mileh Fo represent the Christian Messiah inMission to Heaven
，Kwanyin has been claimed to be the“Buddhist equivalent to the Holy Spirit，to whom is attributed the work of conversion．She is always represented on the left of Amitabha，when one of the Trinity，but alone and behind the Trinity screen when saving someone from a sea of trouble．”Timothy Richard trans．，，xxxvi．These Holy Spirit attributes of Kwanyin were given repeated emphasis throughoutMission to Heaven
．Kwanyin has been depicted as the agent of repentance leading to the conversion of the individual pilgrims in chapter 8．A contemporary reader ofMission to Heaven
，Lin Yutang（林 語 堂，1895 1976）saw eye to eye with Richard's Christian interpretation by commenting on the conversion experience of the Monkey who“ate the forbidden peach in heaven as Eve ate the forbidden apple in Eden，and he was finally chained under a rock for five hundred years as Prometheus was chained．By the time the decreed period was over，Hsüantsang［Xuanzang］came and released him，and he was to undertake the journey，fighting all the devils and strange creatures on the way，as an atonement for his sins．”Lin Yutang，，276．The conversion of the Monkey and other disciples is predominantly attributed to the spiritual power of Kwanyin．The imprisoned Monkey pleads for salvation by praying to Kwanyin，“I pray you to save me，and Ishall henceforth lead a new life．” Timothy Richard trans．，，108．Anthony Yu translated the line into“I implore the Bodhisattva to show a little mercy and rescue old Monkey！”See Anthony C．Yu trans．，，vol．1，195．Meanwhile，the Dragon Horse，who in his previous life committed sins by setting fire to the heavenly palace and condemned to execution，also implores Kwanyin for help in penance of his sins，“I pray you，Kwanyin，to save me．” Ibid．，108．Anthony Yu translated the line into“I beg the Bodhisattva to save me．”See Anthony C．Yu trans．，，vol．1，194．In a similar manner，Kwanyin plays the role as the agent of repentance for Sha Monk by admonishing，“Why do you not repent and help to fetch the Sacred Books from the West？Then you will no more be tormented with remorse．”Ibid．，106．However，the importance of good works and merits is emphasized in the original text，“Why don't you come into my fold，take refuge in good works，and follow the scripture pilgrim as his disciple when he goes to the Western Heaven to ask Buddha for the scriptures？I’ll order the flying sword to stop piercing you．At the time when you achieve merit，your sin will be expiated and you will be restored to your former position．”Anthony C．Yu trans．，，vol．1，190．Richard deliberately opts for thoseexpressions with Christian overtones，for instance“pray”and“repent”，to emphasize the pivotal role of Kwanyin in the repentance and redemption of the pilgrims．Apart from serving as the agent of repentance，Kwanyin is also portrayed as the giver of new life．The resurrecting power of the Holy Spirit and Kwanyin is equalized in Richard's comparison between Christianity and Buddhism，“There are dry bones in both religions．What is needed is the Creative Spirit of the Christians，called the Merciful Kwanyin by the Buddhists，to make these dry bones live again！” Timothy Richard，，25．Richard makes reference to the imagery of dry bones in Ezekiel 37：1 14．Kwanyin's power of“making the dry bones live again”can be best illustrated by the narrative of the beheaded Dragon in chapter 10 ofMission to Heaven
．When the Tang Emperor is haunted by the ghost of the headless Dragon，“A Taoist priestess came forward and waved a willow twig．The headless dragon，still mourning and weeping，left at once towards the northwest．”Anthony C．Yu trans．，，vol．1，232．Richard subtly changes the plot and introduces a new ending to the scene，“Kwanyin came with her jar of water and sprig of willow and made the dragons head grow on his body again．”Timothy Richard trans．，，115．Instead of being expelled，the beheaded Dragon is given a new life，or resurrected，by Kwanyin，coinciding with the Holy Spirit's role as the“giver of life．” According to the Nicene Creed，the Holy Spirit is referred to as“the Lord and Life-Giver．”See Colin E．Gunton ed．，（Cambridge and New York：Cambridge University Press，1997），280 285．Assuming the role of the Holy Spirit，Kwanyin serves as the“chief agent in repentance and the new birth，inspiring men to follow God in works of mercy”Timothy Richard trans．，，xx-xxi．by summoning the sinners to undertake the pilgrimage，answering their prayers，and offering immediate salvation along the arduous journey to the Western Heaven．3．Huen Chwang as Apostle Paul
Being the master of the pilgrimage to heaven，Huen Chwang（Xuanzang，玄奘 ）was converted from Primitive Buddhism to Higher Buddhism in response to the calling of Kwanyin．Richard contends that Huen Chwang belonged to“Primitive Buddhism originally and despised the Higher，as Paul did the Christian，but was afterwards converted and became a leader in the Higher．” Timothy Richard trans．，A Mission to Heaven，xxxvi．See also the Illustration“The Master．Buddhist Monk．First followed Primitive Buddhism，Later converted to Higher Buddhism．”Timothy Richard，，136 137．Henceforth Richard attempts to compare Huen Chwang with Apostle Paul by drawing the parallel religious experiences between these two religious leaders of Buddhism and Christianity respectively．They not only had their earlier lives believing in the so-called“primitive”form of the“higher”religion，but also despised the latter．While Paul had been a staunch adherent of Judaism and persecutor of Christianity，Huen Chwang in his previous life in the heavenly realm looked down on the teaching of Buddha and was incarnated on earth．Both Paul and Huen Chwang experienced the heavenly revelation and converted to the religion they once despised．While Paul had the miraculous encounter with the resurrected Christ on the way to Damascus and converted to Christianity，Huen Chwang's teaching in Primitive Buddhism was renounced by Kwanyin who instructed him to teach Higher Buddhism because“Early Buddhism cannot save the dead，but Higher Buddhism can take them to heaven，can save men f rom trouble，can make them long-lived without being reborn again in this world．”Richard pays heed to the similar post-conversion experiences of Huen Chwang and Paul who emerged as religious leaders and preachers of the“true religion”．Endowed with the heavenly mission，the apostle Paul undertook journeys of itinerant preaching in Asia Minor and the Hellenic world in face of various persecutions．In a similar manner，Huen Chwang was called by Kwanyin to travel to the Western Heaven through numerous trials and tribulations．Like Paul who left his teachings in the epistles to the Church，formulating a major portion of the New Testament，Huen Chwang ultimately fetched the true scriptures of Higher Buddhism from the Western Heaven for the enlightenment of the people in the East．Furthermore，Richard's translation portrays an image of a Buddhist master with unswerving determination and lofty virtues by means of a substantial omission of HuenChwang's selfishness，cowardice and hesitation in face of various carnal temptations． See于懷瑾Yu Huaijin，〈論李 提摩 太對《西 游 記 》的 詮 釋 〉“Lun Li Timotai duide quanshi”［Timothy Richard's Interpretation and Translation of］，42 44；胡 淳艷Hu Chunyan，王慧Wang Hui，〈佛 耶之 間—— 李提 摩 太 《天 國 之 行 》的 翻 譯 傳 播 〉“Fo Ye zhi jian:Li Timotaide fanyi chuanbo”［Between Buddhism and Christianity：The Translation and Distribution of Timothy Richard's］，248．
While depicting a Pauline figure in Huen Chwang，Timothy Richard，however，does not have a consistent interpretation of the allegorical role of Huen Chwang who is described as a“religious Master with a vow of faith in，and loyalty to，Buddha‘God’，to help and save all living beings，by doing good to them，and by self-sacrifice．．．He has come down from Heaven．．．to save men．”Timothy Richard trans．，，xxxvi．This description obviously associates Huen Chwang with Christ's voluntary incarnation and redeeming Passion．In actual fact，Richard in his autobiography suggests that Huen Chwang is an“allegorical figure of Jesus Christ．”Timothy Richard，，343．Apparently Richard has overlooked the fact that Huen Chwang's incarnation was involuntary，as chapter 100 ofMission to Heaven
reveals that Huen Chwang，once known as Kin Shen（Golden Cicada）and a leading disciple of the Buddha，was expelled from the heavenly realm due to his despising of Buddha's teaching．This makes it clear that Richard's association between Huen Chwang and Jesus Christ is not without textual discrepancy，if not contradiction．According to Richard's manipulative narrative inMission to Heaven
，Huen Chwang seems to have a stronger allegorical connection with the apostle Paul than Jesus Christ，on the grounds that both of them had once looked down on the true religion，experienced the downfall and conversion，and finally embarked on the pilgrimage for the salvation of humankind．4．The Pilgrim's Progress of Nestorianism
The quest for Higher Buddhism as the“true religion”constitutes the ultimate objective of the pilgrims inMission to Heaven
．On the nature of Higher Buddhism，Timothy Richard not only asserts that it shares some common truths with Christianity，but claims Higher Buddhism to be equivalentwith early Christianity．Timothy Richard trans．，，xxxii．The introduction tohas a separate section entitled“Lost Nestorian Rediscovered”claiming that there was evidence in chapter 88 and p．310 to show thatwas“not a Bible of Nestorianism but the Pilgrim's Progress of it．”See Timothy Richard trans．，，xxxi-xxxii．This section echoes Richard's encounter with a salt manufacturer who was called by Richard a“Lost Nestorian”in his ways of worship．See Timothy Richard，，48 49．In line with this religious assumption，chapter 100 ofMission to Heaven
defines the“great religion”（Higher Buddhism）specifically as Nestorianism through Julai's final revelation of the underlying reason for Huen Chwang's reincarnation on earth：“Holy monk，in a former life you were my disciple，second in rank，called Kin Shen．But because you did not study carefully，and looked down on our great religion（Nestorianism）you were condemned to be re-born in China．”Richard's deliberate addition of“Nestorianism”to annotate“great religion”jumps to the conclusion that Mahayana Buddhism is identical with Nestorianism，Christianity was first introduced to China with the arrival of the Nestorian missionary Allopen to Chang’an during the Tang Dynasty in the seventh century．Nestorian Christianity in China was known as Jingjiao（景 教）．For the history Nestorian Christianity in China，see Daniel H．Bays，（Chichester，West Sussex；Malden，MA：Wiley-Blackwell，2012），4 16．For the Protestant missionary study on Nestorianism in China，see James Legge，，，，，，（London：Trübner，1888）．both of which are qualified as the“great religion”or“true religion”．On the basis of this provocative interpretation，Richard puts forth a bold claim thatMission to Heaven
is thePilgrim's Progress
of Nestorianism， Timothy Richard trans．，，xxxii．It is noteworthy that Richard was not the first one to comparewith．Herbert Giles pinpointed the possible connection between these two works with special reference to Xuanzang's crossing of the river prior to his arrival in the Western Heaven．See Herbert A．Giles，，84．and that it is a“Chinese Epic and Allegory of Higher Buddhism by one who appears to be a liberal Nestorian Christian．”Ibid．，Advertisement：Standard Books on Buddhism．Richard asserted that Mission towas authored by the Yuan dynasty Daoist master Qiu Changchun（邱 長春 ，also known as邱處 機who was regarded as a“Taoist Gamaliel who became a Nestorian Prophet and Advisor to the Chinese Court”．See Timothy Richard trans．，，title page．
Pilgrim's Progress
，Timothy Richard spares no efforts to“rediscover”any possible Nestorian elements and references inMission to Heaven
．The original text of Chapter 88 has an eight-lined poem depicting the scene about the three disciples who demonstrate their mastery of marital arts in front of the Princes of Yu Hwa（玉華縣）．Richard's rendition of the first two lines of the poem，“The true Illustrious Religion is not human/The great Way，whose origin is in all space”，is profoundly problematic．A footnote has been added to elucidate the term“Illustrious Religion”：“The Chinese name used here is the same as that used on the Nestorian monument for Christianity．”Timothy Richard trans．，，309．As a matter of fact， “Illustrious Religion”is the literal translation of the Chinese name of Nestorianism（景 教jingjiao
），which is mentioned in the Nestorian monument．The lines in the Nestorian monument“真 常 之 道，妙 而 難 名，功 用 昭 彰，強 稱 景 教 ”were translated as“It is difficult to find a name to express the excellence of the true and unchangeable doctrine；but as its meritorious operations are manifestly displayed，by accommodation it is named the illustrious Religion．”See Alexander Wylie，（Shanghai：s．n．，1897），Part II，27．Nevertheless，the term“jingjiao
”is not used in the first line of the original poem，readingZhen Chan jingxiang bufan tong
（真 禪 景象不 凡 同 ）． The first two lines of original poem“真 禪景象 不凡 同，大道 緣由 滿太空 ”were rendered by Anthony Yu into“The image of true Zen's no common view/The Great Way's causes the cosmos imbue．”See Anthony C．Yu trans．，，vol．4，218．The word“jingxiang
”（景 象 ），simply meaning“view”，“scene”or“sight”， Dictionary Department，Institute of Linguistics，Chinese Academy of Social Science comp．，（Chinese-English edition） （Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press，2002），1029．does not have any faintest association with“jingjiao
” （Illustrious Religion）．This example testifies to the strategy of liberal refashioning of the original text on the part of Richard for serving his purpose of Nestorian interpretation inMission to Heaven
．In fact，Richard's Nestorian interpretation and manipulation ofJourney to the West
is not confined to this particular chapter．Predominantly，Richard strives to make a remote，if not bizarre，connection between Allopen（亞 羅 本 ），the first Nestorian missionary to Tang China，and the Daoist deity Chin Wu（真武大帝 ）in chapter 66．The beginning of the chapter narrates the mistranslated legend of Chin Wu（The True Conqueror），whose wife miraculously swallowed a beam of light and in A．D．581 gave birth to a child who was“The Equal One with God．”Timothy Richard trans．，，259．According to the original text，it was not Chin Wu's wife who swallowed a beam of light and gave birth to a child，but Chin Wu's mother who swallowed a beam of light and gave birth to Chin Wu．Apparently Timothy Richard confused the ambiguous term（皇 后），referring to either“queen”or“queen mother”in Chinese．“The august patriarch［Chin Wu］was the offspring of King Pure Joy and Queen Triumphant Virtue，who was conceived with child after she dreamed that she had swallowed the sun．”See Anthony C．Yu trans．，，vol．3，256．Regarding Chin Wu，Richard even provides an annotation to assert that Allopen was the child born in the year A．D．581，and that Allopen was 54 years old upon his arrival in China in A．D．635．Richard goes further to contend that“Nestorians taught that the Spirit of their Saviour had reappeared in the persons of Olopen”．Such a claim attempts to build a far-fetched connection between the miraculous birth of the Nestorian priest Allopen and that of Christ of Christianity who was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary．Without any solid evidence，Richard makes incredible use of the myth of the birth of the son of Chin Wu to relate the novel to the history of Nestorian missions in Tang China，giving historically groundless support to his assertionthatMission to Heaven
is a NestorianPilgrim's Progress
．This once again testifies to Theo Herman's argument that translation is a goal-oriented act that implies a degree of manipulation of the source text for a particular purpose． Theo Hermans ed．，（London：Croom Helm，1985），11．5．“Multi-religious”Kingdom of God
Mission to the Heaven
concludes with the pilgrim's arrival and canonization in the Western Heaven in chapter 100．Probably alluding to the“new song”sung by the heavenly creatures in the Book of Revelation，the climatic chanting of the“New Anthem in Heaven”at the end ofMission to Heaven
is in praise of the aim of all the founders of the great religions，Timothy Richard trans．，，xxxiii．such as Buddha，Messiah，Mohamad and Mani．See Appendix：New Anthem of Heaven．Some of Richard's translations are grossly farfetched．For example，“南 無 清 凈 海 眾 菩 薩 ”was rendered as“Mohammed of the Great Sea”，compared with“Bodhisattvas of the Great Pure Ocean”by Anthony Yu；“摩 尼幢 佛”was translated as“Him with the Mani canopy”，compared with Anthony Yu's“Buddha of Jeweled Banner”．The term“摩 尼”（in Sanskrit）means“a jewel，gem，precious stone（especially a pearl，bead，or other globular ornament）．See William Edward Soothill comp．，，435．The purely Buddhist Western Heaven of the original text has been lavishly converted into the kingdom of God which embraces all the major world religions in a harmonious manner．Richard's portrayal of the multi-religious kingdom of God constitutes an implementation of his view on comparative religion，that is，that“the fundamental principles of Comparative Religion which recognize that true Religion comes not to destroy but to fulfil，that no religion has a monopoly of all truth，and that the best in all religions is Divine and eternal，and must be honoured．”Timothy Richard trans．，，xii．Richard's view actually echoes Max Müller's（ 1823 1900）statement of denying the monopoly of western religions，particularly Christianity，in the possession of truth，“There is no specific dif ference between ourselves and the Brahmans，the Buddhists，the Zoroastrians，or the Taosze．Our powers of perceiving，of reasoning，and of believing may be more highly developed，but we cannot claimthe possession of any verifying power or of any power of belief which they did not possess as well．” Max Müller ed．，（Oxford：Oxford University Press，1879），vol．1，xxxvii．By undertaking and editing the fifty-volumeSacred Books of the East
series，Max Müller for the first time，A．A．Macdonell wrote，“placed the historical and comparative study of religions on a solid foundation．” M．Winternitz comp．，（Delhi：Motilal Banarsidass，1966），preface，viii．While Richard's interest in other non-Christian religions commenced as early as the 1870s， Apart from studying Buddhist classics，Richard also showed a great enthusiasm in reading the Koran and other books on Islam．See Timothy Richard，，86 89．Max Müller's view on comparative religion might have been a major source of inspiration for Richard，whose library contained a complete set ofSacred Books of the East
．In translating theNew Testament of Higher Buddhism
，Richard makes special reference toSacred Books of the East
for the discussion of the common ground between Buddhism and Christianity．Timothy Richard，，190．In other words，Richard's standpoint on comparative religion not only reflected but was actually influenced by the contemporary development of the comparative study of religions spearheaded by Max Müller in the late nineteenth century． See Eric J．Sharpe，（2ed．）（London：Duckworth，1986），35 46；Richard Hughes Seager，/，，1893（Bloomington and Indianapolis：Indiana University Press，1995），67 72．The multi-religious kingdom of God envisaged in the“New Anthem in Heaven”unveils the ultimate missionary goal of Timothy Richard who regards the establishment of the kingdom of God on earth as the solution to multifarious human problems，including poverty，oppression，violence，ignorance，selfishness and sin．Timothy Richard，，35 36．Richard argued that what China needed was not confined to the spiritual realm but also required social and scientific modernization：“The problem before the missionary in China．．．was not only how to save the souls of a fourth of the human race，but also how to save their bodies．．．a(chǎn)nd to free their minds．．．if the nation were liberated from the bonds of ignorance and harmful custom，and were to receive the light of education—scientific，industrial，religious—it might become one of the most powerful nations on earth．”See Timothy Richard，，7．For Timothy Richard，the missionary vision of establishing the Kingdom of God on Earth includes not only the unity of religion but also thecooperation of Christians and non-Christians for the well-being of all humankind． Lai Pan-chiu，“Timothy Richard's Buddhist-Christian Studies”，29（2009），34．Nevertheless，Richard's envisioned kingdom of God encompassing multiple religions remains，in essence，Christian-centered．Although he argues that the Great Religion of the Kingdom of God would not be born of any particular existing religion，the kingdom was still what“Jesus Christ commanded His disciples to preach”，Timothy Richard，，35 36．and that it was a“kingdom of our God and of His Christ”．With this underlying Christian assumption in mind，it is inevitable for Richard to view Buddhism through the lens of Christianity and even equate Mahayana Buddhism with Christianity，as manifested in his proposed notions of Mahayana Christianity and Buddhist Trinity．
6．Conclusion
Timothy Richard's production of a Christianized rendition ofJourney to the West
coincides with his underlying interpretation that Mahayana Buddhism is an Asiatic form of the gospel of Christianity，and on the basis of which he formulates his assumption thatJourney to the West
was a NestorianPilgrim's Progress
with its predominant theme of a pilgrimage to heaven．One may easily criticize the“misinterpretation”of Buddhism and“inaccuracy”in the translation ofMission to Heaven
on the grounds of the identity and proselytizing agenda of Richard as a Christian missionary from the West．Richard has undoubtedly manipulated the source text ofJourney to the West
by translating the Buddhism concepts and terminology in the Christian f ramework．Nevertheless，as Maria Tymoczko succinctly argued，translation is not a substitutive，metaphorical process of wholesale replacement of one language or culture by another but is rather a“metonymic process of connection，a process of creating contiguities and contextures．”Maria Tymoczko，（Manchester：St．Jerome，1999），282．Instead of a wholesale replacement of Buddhism by Christianity，Mission to Heaven
has been transformed into a kind of hybridized text：on the one hand having the flavor of Buddhistimplications of the original novel，and on the other infiltrating with the Christian references in the target text．It would be hardly justifiable，as Li Hui remarked，to view Richard's translation approach as a simplified and reductionist substitution of Chinese culture by Christian mentality，because Richard adopts a liberal cultural attitude by fully acknowledging the complexity of Oriental culture and the high literary value ofJourney to the West
． 李暉Li Hui， 〈“永 生 ”的 寓 喻 敘 事： 淺 析 李 提 摩 太 對 《西 游 記 》的 翻 譯 理 解 方 案 〉“Yongsheng de yuyu xushi:Qianxi Li Timotai duide fanyi lijie fang'an”［An Allegory of Christian Immortality：Timothy Richard's Scheme of Understanding in His Translation of］，34．All in all，the translation ofMission to Heaven
constitutes a literary experiment，if not instrument，for advocating Richard's comparative religion and realizing his vision for the establishment of the Kingdom of God，not only in China but all over the world．While Lai Pan-chiu has a point when he suggests that Richard's appreciation of Mahayana Buddhism was shaped by his Christian beliefs，Richard's Christian beliefs are also reshaped in the process of his intense encounter with Buddhism and other Chinese religions．We may argue that Richard attempts to transcend not only Buddhism but also Christianity in his pursuit of the establishment of a more inclusive Kingdom of God，which embraces the ideals of the great religions of the world．Being one of the earliest endeavours of translatingJourney to the West
into English，Mission to Heaven
，albeit controversial，was testament to the dawn of Christian-Buddhist dialogue and comparative study of religions in the early twentieth century．
Appendix：New Anthem in Heaven
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［Religious Studies］，1，（2007）：115 121．吳承 恩Wu Cheng’en，《西 游 記 》Xiyouji
［The Journey to the West］（香 港 ［Hong Kong］：中華書 局 ［Zhonghua Book Company］，2007）．于懷 瑾Yu Huaijin，〈論 李 提 摩 太 對 《西 游 記 》的 詮 譯 〉“Lun Li Timotai duiXiyouji
de quanyi”［Timothy Richard's Interpretation and Translation ofThe Journey to the West
］，Master Thesis，Capital Normal University，China，2007．TransIating Buddhism：Timothy Richard's Christian Interpretation of The Journey to the West
John T
.P
.Lai
（The Chinese University of Hong Kong）
The Journey to the West
（Xiyouji
西 游 記 ），conventionally acclaimed as one of the four great classical novels of Chinese literature，was partially translated in 1913 by Timothy Richard（ 1845 1919），for 45 years a Welsh Baptist missionary to China，under the titleA Mission to Heaven:A Great Chinese Epic and Allegory
．Richard interprets the whole novel as a Christian allegory of pilgrimage，depicting a group of converted sinners who travel to heaven for“the transformation of character from very unpromising materials into saints fit for Heaven．”In this connection，Richard offers an ardently provocative Christian interpretation ofJourney to the West
for this classical work of Chinese fiction deeply embedded with Buddhist and Daoist symbolism andconception．Being one of the earliest English translations ofJourney to the West
，Richard'sMission to Heaven
has hitherto received little academic attention，particularly in the English speaking world．By investigating Richard's Christian interpretation of the Buddhist elements inJourney to the West
，this paper attempts to demonstrate Richard's efforts in promoting the Christian-Buddhist dialogue and comparative study of religions in the early twentieth century．The Journey to the West
；A Mission to Heaven
；Timothy Richard；Christian-Buddhist dialogue；comparative religion黎子鵬，香港中文大學文化及宗教研究系副教授，主要研究領域為宗教、文學和翻譯跨學科研究。已出版兩部專著：《跨越宗教鴻溝：十九世紀基督教書冊的漢譯事業(yè)》（2012）和《經(jīng)典的轉(zhuǎn)生──晚清〈天路歷程〉漢譯研究》（2012）。
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