王 琰
(廣東培正學院,廣東 廣州 510830)
*收稿日期:2013-10-21
預設理論最早由德國哲學家弗雷格1892年提出。近年來學者們將其引入語言學范疇并已經(jīng)成為了該領域中重要的研究對象。在本質上,預設就是一種“語用推理”(Levinson 1983), 預設往往由預設觸發(fā)語引發(fā),即預設產(chǎn)生的語言表達形式。Levinson (1983) 總結出了13種預設觸發(fā)語:限制性詞、反復意義表達詞、事實動詞、含蓄動詞、狀態(tài)變化動詞、評價動詞、比較和對比、分裂句、帶有強調成分的分裂句、時間狀語從句、非限制性定語從句、反事實條件句和疑問句。
導語實則是濃縮的微型新聞。所謂“濃縮” 一方面是指內容上的精簡。它應該用最經(jīng)濟、最簡明扼要的方式體現(xiàn)出整篇新聞的核心內容或主要觀點, 讓讀者能夠對文章梗概一目了然; 另一方面, 是指字數(shù)上的濃縮。一般來說, 英語新聞的導語常占據(jù)一則新聞的第一自然段,一般以一個或兩個完整的句子概括全文。準確的說,就是選擇一個最吸引人的新聞事實,突顯新聞價值的最大要素。美聯(lián)社的寫作手冊里要求一條優(yōu)秀導語具備10個特點,即提供消息、簡短、明晰、簡單、直截了當、生動、客觀、富于色彩、格調高尚。因而,寫作手法的多樣性及其鮮明的語言特點使得近年來學者們的研究主要集中在以下幾個方面:第一,寫作方式。例如,中英文新聞導語語篇結構差異分析( 于航 2004)、 淺析英語新聞稿的導語寫作(范玲 2010)等。第二,功能語法。例如,從功能語法的視角論災難英語新聞導語語言特點與新聞價值(丁暉 2006)等。第三,翻譯。例如,功能翻譯理論指導下的英語新聞導語漢譯(楊冬青 2010)等。 可以看出,對英語新聞導語的研究涵蓋了多個方面,但是對導語中的預設機制的研究是空白。而筆者旨在研究預設在導語中的應用方式和作用及其如何幫助導語實現(xiàn)其在新聞中的重要功能。
本研究收集了《紐約時報》中60篇熱點新聞的導語。在分析過程中,筆者按照Levinson (1983)總結的十三類預設觸發(fā)語對收集到的語料運用AntConc 專業(yè)統(tǒng)計軟件進行了分析。
(一)詞匯的預設
1. 限定性詞語
限定性詞語在新聞導語中運用頻率最高。原因在于每句話中都必須要有表述的主題,因而這種指稱表達出現(xiàn)在每句話中。例如:
例(1)An ecstatic China finally got its Olympic moment on Friday night. And if the astonishing opening ceremonies of the 2008 Olympic Games lavished grand tribute on Chinese civilization and sought to stir an ancient nation’s pride, there was also a message for an uncertain outside world: Do not worry. We mean no harm. (Aug. 9, 2008)
這是一篇關于奧運會開幕式的報道。這篇導語中有三處用到了不定冠詞a/an,預設了這樣三個事實:
a.The ecstatic China exists on Friday night.
b.The message exists.
c.There is an uncertain outside.
這樣的預設其實就是用最簡潔的語言告訴讀者三者真實存在。奧運會的開幕讓中國感到興奮和自豪。不確定的外部世界的存在事實上就意味著其他國家的人民不了解中國。傳遞我們沒有危害的信息言下之意就是說明在西方媒體眼里中國一直以來對他國帶有惡意。在看似客觀的語句中,報道者把自己的觀點和評價傳遞給了讀者。
例(2)Powerful earthquakes on the Tibetan plateau have killed hundreds of people and injured many thousands of others. The disaster presents the Chinese authorities with the challenge of another large-scale relief effort following an earthquake in neighboring Sichuan province in May 2008 that killed more than 80,000 people. The remoteness of the affected area will make it all the harder. (April 14, 2010)
這是一篇關于青海地震的報道。在這篇新聞導語中有六處由定冠詞the引發(fā)的預設。The disaster 就是指青海玉樹地震。The Chinese authorities 是指抗震救災的政府相關部門。The challenge 中的the實際就是大規(guī)模救災工作的難度。而最后兩個the 是同樣指地震發(fā)生的青海玉樹。這六個定冠詞的使用讓新聞語言更加簡潔.
2. 含蓄動詞
Yale(2000)指出:the use of one implicative verb can bring out its asserted meaning and the non-asserted meaning with the presupposition in it.正如Yale所說“avoid”一詞意味著:某一事情總是發(fā)生或者阻止某一事情發(fā)生。
例(3) On a bustling corner near downtown Shanghai recently, some shoppers avoided the steamed buns sold by Zhu Qinghe in a street-side cubbyhole. Instead, they bought the packaged buns in the freezer section of Hualian, a supermarket chain store in the same building. (May 8, 2011)
這是有關上海染色饅頭事件的報道。使用Avoid 作為觸發(fā)語,預設信息為:沒有顧客買朱清和在路邊叫賣的饅頭。這樣的預設讓語言更加多樣性。
3. 狀態(tài)動詞
例(4) The new United States ambassador to?China, Gary F. Locke, warned China on Tuesday that its undervalued currency, its increasingly restrictive business environment and the rampant theft of intellectual property threatened both the country’s long-term economic prospects and American job growth at a time of continued weakness in the global economy. (Sep.21, 2011)
這篇新聞導語中有兩處預設觸發(fā)。Continue 一詞作為預設觸發(fā)語,讀者們可以獲知的預設信息是:全球經(jīng)濟一直很疲軟。評價動詞warn 引發(fā)這樣的預設信息:中國存在低估人民幣,過多限制經(jīng)濟環(huán)境和瘋狂盜取知識產(chǎn)權的事實。報道者把自己對中國的評價作為預設信息傳遞給了讀者,構建了讀者心中中國的不良形象。在全球經(jīng)濟疲軟的時期,中國的行為威脅到了中美經(jīng)濟發(fā)展甚至美國就業(yè)率。這種報道是夾雜了個人情感,是不客觀的。
4. 評價動詞
例(5) The International Monetary Fund warned China on Tuesday that tight government management of the nation’s banking and financial system was creating “a steady build-up in vulnerabilities” that could eventually damp economic growth. (Nov. 16, 2011)
Warn 一詞在這篇導語中充當預設觸發(fā)語。隱含的信息就是:The tight government management of the nation’s banking and financial system exist. 表明中國的金融業(yè)是由政府把持的,并未真正對外開放。 新聞記者用評價動詞作為觸發(fā)語,表明了自己的看法和態(tài)度。同時也把這樣的觀點傳遞給了西方讀者。
5. 反復意義表達詞
這一類觸發(fā)語在新聞導語中也較為常用。重疊詞的使用預設了某一行為和狀態(tài)之前就已經(jīng)存在了。因而,使用了反復意義表達詞的新聞導語簡潔明了,避免了重復、啰嗦。例如:
例(6)China on Thursday has again showed its preference for using administrative controls to manage its surging economy, raising down-payment requirements for certain home buyers after announcing that economic growth in the first quarter surged to 11.9% from a year earlier. (April 18, 2010)
這又是一篇西方媒體對中國金融政策的報道。Again 一詞的使用引發(fā)預設。中國曾經(jīng)使用行政干預手段管理經(jīng)濟。這樣的預設手段同樣表明了報道者的立場,主觀介入新聞事件。
例(7) A new study by the World Bank and a Chinese government research organization warns that the country’s economic growth is likely to diminish over the next few decades unless China alters its development model and rethinks the role of government in managing the economy. (Fer. 28, 2012)
Rethink 作為觸發(fā)語,它預設的意思就是中國政府在經(jīng)濟管理方面的角色定位需要反思。其實就是質疑中國政府在經(jīng)濟管理中的職能作用?,F(xiàn)行的發(fā)展模式和管理定位已經(jīng)不適合中國經(jīng)濟的發(fā)展。上面筆者分析評價動詞的語用預設和作用,在這篇新聞導語中也出現(xiàn)了“warn”, 同樣的warn 預設了帶有作者觀點的信息,國家經(jīng)濟增長很有可能在未來幾十年放緩。
6. 事實動詞
例(8) EUROPE is drowning and needs a lifeline. A series of marathon meetings this week yielded a new set of proposals, but what they depend on is cash — and lots of it, perhaps trillions of dollars — to save Greece and the European banking system and to prevent financial contagion from spreading to Spain, Italy and even France, which would destroy the euro zone as we know it. Where to turn for help? The answer is obvious: China. (Oct. 28, 2011)
這是一篇關于歐洲經(jīng)濟需要中國支持的報道。Know 一詞就是預設了這一事實在歐洲借貸會摧毀整個歐元區(qū)。讀者順理成章地獲知了報道者傳遞的信息,并且得到了很明確的答案:只有中國才能幫助歐洲。
(二)句法的預設
1. 時間狀語從句
時間狀語從句通常由連接詞when, before, after, as,since 等引導。不管主從句之間是什么關系,時間狀語從句都能引發(fā)事實預設。根據(jù)上面的統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù),它在新聞導語中運用頻率較高。
例(9)Hundreds of people were injured here on Tuesday when a subway train slammed into the rear of another train in a sprawling transit line that opened just last year. The accident cast new scrutiny on the safety record of China’s rapidly modernizing mass transit rail systems. (Sep.25, 2011)
在這篇新聞導語中,when 引導的時間狀語從句預設了這樣的信息: a subway train slammed into the rear of another train. 不過預設信息僅僅作為次要信息,主要突出在這次事故中有幾百人受傷。
例(10)He is widely known as “the crying prime minister,” although he prefers to be called “Grandpa Wen.” Over the past week, as Wen Jiabao toured earthquake-shattered towns and cities across northern Sichuan, he has hollered out words of encouragement to those trapped beneath fallen buildings and shared tearful moments with newly orphaned children. (May 21, 2008)
在這篇導語中,as 連接的從句作為預設觸發(fā)語預設了這樣的事實:Wen Jiabao toured earthquke-shattered towns and cities across norther Sichuan.
根據(jù)上述分析可以看出,時間狀語從句的使用突出了重要信息,并把次要信息作為了預設的內容。語言因此變得簡潔而清楚,傳遞給讀者更多的信息,同時也讓導語語言更加多樣化。
2. 比較和對比
例(11) Seeking to broaden its appeal to China’s better-educated and perhaps more hip youth, the People’s Liberation Army has dropped a longtime bar to enlisting in the service: now, recruits can spot tattoos on their faces and necks.(November 2, 2011)
這是關于中國征兵制度有所放寬的報道。導語中有兩處用到了比較級的形式作為觸發(fā)語。其一就是Better-educated,其預設信息就是中國以前征召的士兵沒有受到良好的教育。其二就是more hip youth, 預設信息就是中國士兵也不時尚。不時尚其實就是說信息閉塞對當下的社會情況并不了解,抨擊了中國的軍事封閉式的管理。這樣的對比就表現(xiàn)出了報道者的個人觀點和評價。傳遞給西方讀者人民解放軍沒有文化,盲目聽從政府的形象。
3. 非限制性定語從句
例(12)The Chinese government increased trade tensions with the Obama administration Wednesday evening by unexpectedly imposing antidumping and antisubsidy tariffs on imports of sport utility vehicles and midsize and large cars from the United States. The Commerce Ministry of China, which has conducted atwo-year trade investigation of the American imports, gave no explanation for its decision to impose the duties. (Dec.14, 2011)
這篇新聞導語通過使用非限制性定語從句,使句子更加簡練。Which隱含的預設為:The Commerce of Ministry of China has conducted a two-year trade investigation of the American imports.這句話通過預設其實還存在一種對中國商務部的譴責。既然中國商務部對美國進口有近兩年的研究,應該對美國進口商品貿易和常規(guī)準則等各方面有很深入全面的了解。那么為什么它對這次征收關稅的行為不能給予任何的解釋呢。
另外“increased”預設了中美政府之間本身就處于貿易緊張的局面,中國增加對美國進口汽車征收反傾銷稅和反補貼稅的行為則加劇了這種狀況,將責任推給中國政府。
4. 分裂句
例(13) I have to admit that I read this article filled with concern for and well wishes to Mr. Jobs, his family and to Apple. I hope this is a part of a therapeutic break that he is taking to get his health fully on track and that he will be back as soon as he is feeling up to it. (Jan 7, 2011) 這是一篇關于因為身體原因喬布斯暫離蘋果公司的報道。大眾都因喬布斯的離開而對蘋果公司的未來產(chǎn)生擔憂。預設的信息是:He is taking to get his health fully on track during the therapeutic break. 報道者運用分裂句this is…that突出他以及讀者的希望:這只是一個有益于健康的短暫離別。由于分裂句的特點,報道者通過使用分裂句強調他所要表達的部分,引起讀者更多的關注。
(三) 名詞化
近年來,很多學者在研究預設機制的過程中發(fā)現(xiàn)預設語還有其他的類型,比如,名詞化。Halliday (1994) 多次談到名詞化問題。在討論語法隱喻時, Halliday 認為, 小句程式變成名詞化程式( 即小句名詞化) 可能使某些信息丟失。更準確地說, 這些信息并沒有丟失, 而是成為預設, 即作者知道他自己要表達的是什么意思, 他以為讀者也知道這個意思, 或者認為讀者能夠通過推理得到這個意思。這就是典型的語用預設。Goatly(2000) 明確指出, 名詞化是實現(xiàn)預設的一種手段。程曉堂(2003)也得出結論,名詞化詞語與一般的限定性描述有本質區(qū)別, 所以應該單獨列為一種預設語。
因此,筆者大膽地將其單獨列為預設手段之一分析在新聞導語中的應用。在收集語料中有兩篇使用了名詞化。
例(14)A steady rise in U.S. consumer prices in January pointed to persistent inflation pressures despite fresh signs on Wednesday that the declining housing sector remains a drag on the economy. (Fer. 17, 2008)
這是一篇關于美國經(jīng)濟的報道。導語以名詞化形式開頭。不用名詞化的形式表達的形式如下:U.S. consumer prices rose in January, which pointed to persistent inflation pressures despite fresh signs on Wednesday that the declining housing sector remains a drag on the economy. 使用名詞化就把美國消費價格持續(xù)上漲作為已知的既成事實傳遞給了讀者。
例(15)POWERFUL earthquakes on the Tibetan plateau have killed hundreds of people and injured many thousands of others. The disaster presents the Chinese authorities with the challenge of another large-scale relief effort following an earthquake in neighbouring Sichuan province in May 2008 that killed more than 80,000 people. The remoteness of the affected area will make it all the harder.
在這篇關于青海地震報道的新聞導語中,報道者也使用了名詞化形式作為預設語?!癱hanllege” is 取自句子another large-scale relief effort is challenging. 名詞化讓句子更加簡潔,同時也預設信息作為既成事實傳遞給讀者,讀者會認為這次抗震救災工作是具有挑戰(zhàn)性的。
綜合以上分析,筆者發(fā)現(xiàn)預設觸發(fā)語運用到了在所有語料中,甚至同一個導語中有時會含有不止一個預設觸發(fā)語,就是說明同一導語中含有不止一個語用預設。就其功能而言,語用預設的存在一方面讓導語保持了文字的經(jīng)濟性,減輕了讀者閱讀的負擔。另一方面突出了重要信息,提高傳播的針對性,實現(xiàn)了傳播者的意圖。