梁昊 審訂/陳國華
【譯者言】? ?對照本期所選文本機(jī)器譯文和人工譯文的譯法,我們可以看到,英漢詞典里沒有恰當(dāng)?shù)闹形膶?yīng)詞時,機(jī)器翻譯僅會給出一個最常見的對應(yīng)詞,人工翻譯卻可以隨機(jī)應(yīng)變,想出一個現(xiàn)有詞典里沒有的對應(yīng)詞。首頁里的coherence就很好地說明了這一點(diǎn)。這個詞派生自謂詞cohere,后者的基本意思是stick together。人正常說話或?qū)懳恼拢把砸詈笳Z,這就是stick together,也就是“連貫”??墒亲鳛樯鐣诵膬r值的coherence顯然不是“連貫”。《牛津高階英漢雙解詞典》提供的中文對應(yīng)詞僅有“連貫性;一致性”;《英漢大詞典》提供的是“1. 黏合(性)2. 一致(性);協(xié)調(diào) 3. (尤指說話、寫作等的)連貫性,前后一致,條理清楚;(文體等的)緊湊”;《新牛津英漢雙解大詞典》里是“1. 密切配合;團(tuán)結(jié)一致;形成(邏輯關(guān)系清楚的)整體2.(論據(jù)、理論)連貫,前后一致”。這些對應(yīng)詞中只有“團(tuán)結(jié)一致”沾邊,但也不太合適。這時只要我們打開腦洞,稍微想一想自己會怎樣表達(dá)社會成員彼此stick together,讓社會具有怎樣一種特質(zhì),“凝聚力”三個字很快就會浮現(xiàn)在腦海。此時我們不妨再查一下漢英詞典,從反方向驗證一下coherence與“凝聚力”是否彼此對應(yīng),就會發(fā)現(xiàn)“凝聚力”的英文對應(yīng)詞恰好是cohere派生的另一個名詞cohesion。作為語言學(xué)術(shù)語,cohesion通常譯作“銜接”。韓禮德名著Cohesion in English的中文譯名就是《英語的銜接》,書中討論的正是cohesion與coherence的關(guān)系,前者側(cè)重話語如何在形式上stick together,后者關(guān)注話語如何在意義上stick together。經(jīng)過這樣一番對比,我們可以得出結(jié)論,cohesion和coherence與“凝聚力”具有對應(yīng)關(guān)系。
不知機(jī)器翻譯研究者能否讓機(jī)器像人工這樣自主學(xué)習(xí),找出一種語言里的每一個詞在另一種語言里的每一個對應(yīng)詞。
Moral Education in Today’s Schools:
USA and UK
Introduction
In the late 20th century, Western institutions of cultural transmission, families in particular, have become less reliable. Divorces, for example, undermine the ability of families to pass on the central values on which a society depends for continuity, coherence, and good order. Therefore public schools have progressively1 found themselves called on2 to accept unprecedented levels of responsibility for teaching in some formal way values which traditionally were learned elsewhere and much less self-consciously. This document summarizes a comparative study which examined recent governmental actions regarding moral education.
Terminological Uncertainties about
Moral Education3
There seems to be no one word which captures the nuances4 of the topic. In the United States moral education refers to the broad concepts of right and wrong. However, for some, morality refers to cultural standards rather than some higher values.
Values education is another term, but some have complained that “values” are what you get in a discount store5. “Values” in that sense have nothing to do with morality.
The term traditional values has been used to point to6 traits which have been considered valuable for a long time, though this phrase has become a political slogan to such an extent that it no longer communicates unambiguously7.
The term virtue suggests traits which have constant and ongoing worth, but the connotation of “virtues” in current American usage implies something old-fashioned and perhaps obsolete.
Ethics8 is another term which also has limitations. Ethics describe duties and obligations which are systematized, often into a code. Classes in ethics tend to focus on moral reasoning.
A more promising term which is being rejuvenated in the United States is character education. “Character” is “a reliable inner disposition to respond to situations in a morally good way9.” It refers to the moral qualities and ethical standards which make up the inner nature of a person. Behavior is a product of character in this sense. Character education holds to the premise that civilization has a common core of shared values, referred to as “universal values” or “public values.” These universal values are seen as rational, objectively valid, universally accepted qualities, actions and ideals to which people of all civilized nations can ascribe, regardless of creeds, races, socio-economic status, gender, or ethnicity. The concept presumes that there is a unifying morality, necessary for the preservation of any society. For that reason all social institutions should feel obligated to teach these universal values to children.
The current research consulted State Departments of Education in the United States and collected published information in the United Kingdom in order to find out how governments are becoming involved in character education.
United States
Though some states have no guidelines for this aspect of education, eight states (of the 19 respondents studied10) have passed legislation or policies requiring11 character education. For example, in California, since 1993: “Each teacher shall12 endeavor to impress upon the minds of the pupils the principles of13 morality, truth, justice, patriotism and a true comprehension of14 the rights, duties and dignity of American citizenship, including kindness toward domestic pets and the humane treatment of living creatures, to teach them to avoid idleness, profanity and falsehood and to instruct them in manners and morals and the principles of a free government.”
Four states (of the 19 studied) have enacted legislation to encourage character education. For example, in Iowa, schools are asked15 to make every effort, formally and informally, to stress character qualities16 that will maintain a safe and orderly learning environment, and that will ultimately equip students to be model citizens. These qualities include but are not limited to: honesty, responsibility, respect and care for the person and property of others, self-discipline, understanding of, respect for and obedience to law and citizenship, courage, initiative, commitment, and perseverance, kindness, compassion, service and loyalty, fairness, moderation and patience, and the dignity and necessity of hard work.
United Kingdom
The 1992 Schools Act stated that schools should “promote the spiritual, moral, mental, physical and cultural development (of its students)”. The definition of moral development refers to “pupils’ knowledge, understanding, intentions, attitudes and behavior in relation to what is right or wrong.” Students should “explore the place of reason in ethical matters and, as autonomous moral agents, acquire value-systems which are their own” (rather than simply transmitted by others and accepted uncritically).
The National Curriculum Council offers a list of moral issues: “School values should include telling the truth, keeping promises, respecting the rights and property of others, acting considerately towards others, helping those less fortunate and weaker than ourselves, taking personal responsibility for one’s actions, self-discipline. School values should reject bullying, cheating, deceit, cruelty, irresponsibility and dishonesty.”
“Pupils should be able to move from the taught morality which is characteristic of the very young—and an essential pre-requisite of moral development—to a position where their values and judgments spring from internal sources and allow them to be mature, autonomous, decision-taking and responsible individuals.”
“Such values include personal values in relation to the self, with reference to such aspects as self-awareness, self-confidence, self-esteem, self-control, self-reliance, self-respect, self-discipline, responsibility, relationships with others with reference to such qualities as tolerance, respect for persons and property, truthfulness, compassion, cooperativeness, sensitivity17, love; local, nation and world issues with reference to such issues as the individual and the community, rights, duties and responsibilities, war and peace, human rights, exploitation and aid, medical ethics, environmental issues, equal opportunities (sex, race, disability, class).”
當(dāng)今學(xué)校的道德教育:
美國和英國
導(dǎo)讀
20世紀(jì)末,西方的文化傳承機(jī)構(gòu),尤其是家庭,已經(jīng)不那么可靠了。例如,離婚會削弱家庭傳承核心價值觀的能力,而社會只有依靠這些價值觀才得以延續(xù),才有凝聚力和良好秩序。因此公立學(xué)校日益發(fā)現(xiàn)自己要承擔(dān)前所未有的責(zé)任,以某種正式途徑傳授那些以往人們在其他地方不經(jīng)意就獲得的價值觀。有一項比較研究調(diào)查了政府最近在道德教育方面采取的措施,下面這份文件總結(jié)了這項研究的發(fā)現(xiàn)。
有關(guān)道德教育術(shù)語上的
不確定性
英語里似乎沒有哪個詞能傳達(dá)出這一話題的微妙之處。在美國,道德教育指有關(guān)是與非的寬泛概念。然而,對某些人來說,道德指文化標(biāo)準(zhǔn)而不是某些更高的價值觀。
價值觀教育是另一術(shù)語,但有些人抱怨說“價值”是人們在折扣店里得到的。那種意義上的“價值”與道德毫無關(guān)系。
傳統(tǒng)價值這一術(shù)語一直被用來指稱長期以來被視為有價值的特性,不過這個短語早已成為一個濫用的政治口號,不再能清清楚楚地傳達(dá)意思。
美德這一術(shù)語表示具有恒定而且持續(xù)品質(zhì)的那些特征,但是在當(dāng)今美國英語的用法里,“美德”的聯(lián)想義暗指某種老式甚至或許過時的東西。
倫理是另一個同樣有局限性的術(shù)語。倫理學(xué)描述系統(tǒng)化的責(zé)任和義務(wù),經(jīng)常形成一套準(zhǔn)則。倫理學(xué)課往往專注道德推理。
一個比較有前途而且正在美國重新煥發(fā)青春的術(shù)語是品格教育?!捌犯瘛奔础耙环N可靠的內(nèi)在秉性,讓人以一種合乎道德的良好方式應(yīng)對各種情況”,指構(gòu)成一個人內(nèi)在本質(zhì)的道德品質(zhì)和倫理標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在這個意義上,行為即品格的產(chǎn)物。品格教育堅守的前提是,人類文明有一個共享價值觀的共核,稱為“普遍價值觀”或“公共價值觀”。這些普遍價值觀被視為理性的、客觀上成立的、普遍接受的品質(zhì)、行為和理想,所有文明國家之人,不論宗派、人種、社會經(jīng)濟(jì)地位、性別或民族,全都認(rèn)同。這一概念預(yù)設(shè)存在一種任何社會的存續(xù)所必須的一元化道德。因此,所有社會機(jī)構(gòu)都應(yīng)感到有義務(wù)將這些普遍價值觀傳授給兒童。
為了了解政府如何參與品格教育,本研究咨詢了美國各州的教育部,并收集了英國公布的信息。
美國
盡管有些州沒有為品格教育制定指導(dǎo)方針,在本研究中,對我們有回應(yīng)的19個州中有8個已經(jīng)通過立法或制定政策,要求實(shí)施品格教育。例如,加利福尼亞州自1993年起規(guī)定:“每位教師都要努力讓學(xué)生們牢記道德、真理、正義、愛國主義等原則,讓他們真正理解美國公民的權(quán)利、職責(zé)和尊嚴(yán),包括善待家養(yǎng)寵物并以人道精神對待生靈,教導(dǎo)他們不游手好閑,不污言穢語,不欺詐作假,教會他們舉止得體、品德高尚,指導(dǎo)他們了解自由政府的構(gòu)建原則。”
所研究的19個州中有4個已通過立法鼓勵實(shí)施品格教育。例如,艾奧瓦州要求學(xué)校以正式和非正式方式不遺余力地加強(qiáng)品格素質(zhì)的培養(yǎng),以維持安全有序的學(xué)習(xí)環(huán)境,并最終將學(xué)生塑造成模范公民。這些素質(zhì)包括但不限于:誠信,責(zé)任心,對他人人身和財產(chǎn)的尊重和愛護(hù),自律,對法律的理解、尊重和服從,以及公民意識,勇氣,主動性,奉獻(xiàn)精神,堅持不懈,善良,同情心,服務(wù)和忠誠,公正,有節(jié)制和耐心,還有勤奮工作的尊嚴(yán)和必要性。
英國
1992年通過的《學(xué)校法》規(guī)定學(xué)校應(yīng)當(dāng)“促進(jìn)(學(xué)生的)精神、道德、心智、身體和文化的發(fā)展”。道德發(fā)展的定義是指“學(xué)生對有關(guān)是非的知識、理解、意圖、態(tài)度和行為”。學(xué)生應(yīng)當(dāng)“探索理性在倫理問題中的地位,應(yīng)作為自主的道德行為者獲得自己的價值體系”(而不是那種單純由他人傳授而自己不加批判就接受的價值體系)。
國家課程理事會列舉了一系列道德議題:“學(xué)校的價值觀應(yīng)當(dāng)包括說實(shí)話,守承諾,尊重他人的權(quán)利和財產(chǎn),待人體貼,幫助那些不如我們幸運(yùn)而且弱于我們的人,自己做事自己擔(dān)當(dāng),能自律。學(xué)校的價值觀應(yīng)當(dāng)拒絕恃強(qiáng)凌弱、作弊、欺詐、殘忍、不負(fù)責(zé)任和不誠實(shí)?!?/p>
“學(xué)生應(yīng)當(dāng)從他人教導(dǎo)的道德(這是幼童特有的道德,而且是道德發(fā)展的一個基本先決條件)達(dá)到一種發(fā)自內(nèi)心的價值觀和判斷,指學(xué)生的價值觀和判斷源于內(nèi)在,讓他們成為成熟、自主、有決斷力和負(fù)責(zé)任的個人?!?/p>
“這類價值觀包括與自我有關(guān)的個人價值觀,指自我意識、自信、自尊、自控、自立、自重、自律、責(zé)任心等方面;包括與他人的關(guān)系,指寬容、尊重他人及其財產(chǎn)、誠信、有同情心、合作、體恤和愛等方面;包括與當(dāng)?shù)亍液褪澜缬嘘P(guān)的議題,指個人與社區(qū)、權(quán)利、義務(wù)與責(zé)任、戰(zhàn)爭與和平、人權(quán)、開發(fā)與援助、醫(yī)學(xué)倫理、環(huán)境議題、機(jī)會均等(性別、人種、殘障、階級)等方面的議題。”
*北京外國語大學(xué)教師。
**廣西師范大學(xué)教授、漓江學(xué)者,北京外國語大學(xué)教授、長青學(xué)者。
1 progressively的意思是in a progressive manner,“譯者言”里提到的三種詞典為progressive提供的中文對應(yīng)詞分別是:“1. 進(jìn)步的;先進(jìn)的;開明的 2. 穩(wěn)步的;逐步的;穩(wěn)定發(fā)展的” (《牛津高階》); “1. 進(jìn)步的,先進(jìn)的;改革的,革新的 2. 向前進(jìn)的;前進(jìn)中的,發(fā)展中的3. 漸次的,逐漸的;循序漸進(jìn)的;累進(jìn)的;(疾病、暴力等)愈來愈嚴(yán)重的”(《新英漢》); “1. 進(jìn)步的,先進(jìn)的;逐步的,漸次的2. (疾病等)進(jìn)行性的,愈來愈嚴(yán)重的3. (稅制、稅種)累進(jìn)的”(《新牛津》)。里面都有“逐步,逐漸”,因此機(jī)器譯文的“逐漸”有據(jù)可依,不過“逐漸”與gradually的意思更相近,不夠精確。這里progressively的意思更接近于increasingly,即“日益;愈來愈”。? 2 called on:Google Translate(GT)的“要求”讓人誤以為是學(xué)校主動請纓,DeepL Translator(DL)的“必須”未能傳達(dá)出被動的意思。這里用一個“要”字涵蓋“被要求”的意思。? 3 moral education的機(jī)器譯文都是“德育”,然而這里moral的意思既不是“德行(virtue)”意義上的“德”,也不等于 “政治思想和道德品質(zhì)的教育”中的“政治思想和道德品質(zhì)”(《現(xiàn)代漢語詞典》“德育”條下),只能按moral education在英語國家語境里的意思,譯成“道德教育”。此外,在討論一個英文詞或短語本身的形式和意義時,通常用斜體將之與正文的其他文字區(qū)別開來;與之對應(yīng),中文最好也用另一種字體將這些字或短語與正文區(qū)別開來。機(jī)器似乎還不知道如何處理斜體的這種用法。
4 機(jī)器譯文將nuances譯成“細(xì)微差別”。既然是“差別”,就應(yīng)說明是與什么的差別,可是上下文并沒有對比的對象。? 5同樣是復(fù)數(shù),values在上一段里指“價值觀”,這里指“價值”,因為顧客在折扣店里買到的不是價值觀,而是以較少的錢得到的高價值商品。GT誤譯成“‘價值觀’就是你在折扣店里得到的東西”;DL誤譯成“‘價值觀’是你在折扣店買到的東西”。? 6 point to即refer to。GT的“指代”和DL的“指向”都不太準(zhǔn)確。? 7這里的to such an extent 隱含使用過度的意思,譯文將這一隱含義表達(dá)為“濫用”,將communicates unambiguously譯成“清清楚楚”。GT的“其程度已使其不再明確地傳達(dá)”令人完全不知其所云,DL的“以至于它不再能明確地傳達(dá)信息”同樣讓人摸不著頭腦。? 8 ethics既可以指“倫理”,又可以指“倫理學(xué)”,譯文須視情況而定。
9“to respond … way”是disposition的后置修飾語。為了避免譯文的名詞中心語前附帶過長的修飾語,機(jī)器譯文都沿襲了原文的語序,GT的譯法是“內(nèi)在性格,能夠以道德良好的方式應(yīng)對情況”;DL的譯法是“內(nèi)在傾向,以道德上良好的方式應(yīng)對各種情況”。鑒于這種譯法使得“應(yīng)對”缺少對象,譯文可增加“讓人”二字。
10 19 respondents studied 字面意思是“19個所研究的回應(yīng)州”(機(jī)器翻譯都將respondents譯成常見但不恰當(dāng)?shù)摹笆茉L者”)。由于這樣行文意思比較繞,我們將這個短語拆分成“在本研究中,19個對我們有回應(yīng)的州”。? 11 GT的“通過了要求……的立法或政策”不如DL的“通過立法或政策要求進(jìn)行……”。為了改進(jìn)搭配,我們在“政策”前面增加了“制定”,又在“要求”之后增加了“實(shí)施”。? 12 shall 這個情態(tài)謂詞,如果主語是第一人稱,表達(dá)的是其意志;如果是其他人稱,則表示言者對句子主語的要求,中文與之最接近的對應(yīng)詞是“要”。嚴(yán)格地說,機(jī)器譯文的“應(yīng)”對應(yīng)的是should,語力略顯不足。? 13 “impress … principles of”的機(jī)器譯文“在學(xué)生心中留下……的原則”就是我們平時說的“讓學(xué)生們牢記……的原則”。? 14 a true comprehension of本來是前面謂詞impress的第二個賓語(第一個是“the principles of …”),可是譯成“讓學(xué)生牢記……的原則”和“對……的真正理解”不如將名詞comprehension當(dāng)作謂詞來處理,譯成“讓他們真正理解”。? 15 機(jī)器譯文“在艾奧瓦州,學(xué)校被要求”讀起來很生硬,不妨譯成主動句“艾奧瓦州要求學(xué)?!?。
16 stress有時對應(yīng)“強(qiáng)調(diào)”,有時對應(yīng)“加強(qiáng)”,這里應(yīng)該是后者;character qualities指“品格素質(zhì)”,為了與“加強(qiáng)”搭配,這里在“素質(zhì)”之后添加“培養(yǎng)”一詞。GT的“品格品質(zhì)”或DL的“人格品質(zhì)”都不太貼切。
17 sensitivity指“體恤他人的需要和情感”(見Merriam-Webster在線詞典sensitivity n. e.)。機(jī)器譯文都是“敏感”,在這里不恰當(dāng)。