龍智云,楊家軒,楊曉航,賈若琨,趙 明,馬 軍
(1.城市水資源與水環(huán)境國家重點實驗室(哈爾濱工業(yè)大學(xué)),哈爾濱 150090;2.哈爾濱工業(yè)大學(xué) 市政環(huán)境工程學(xué)院,哈爾濱 150090;3.東北電力大學(xué) 化學(xué)工程學(xué)院,吉林 吉林 132012)
飲用水水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性評價方法研究進(jìn)展
龍智云1,2,楊家軒1,2,楊曉航3,賈若琨3,趙 明1,2,馬 軍1,2
(1.城市水資源與水環(huán)境國家重點實驗室(哈爾濱工業(yè)大學(xué)),哈爾濱 150090;2.哈爾濱工業(yè)大學(xué) 市政環(huán)境工程學(xué)院,哈爾濱 150090;3.東北電力大學(xué) 化學(xué)工程學(xué)院,吉林 吉林 132012)
飲用水生物穩(wěn)定性評價對保障水質(zhì)安全具有重要意義.本文概述了飲用水水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性主要評價指標(biāo)及其傳統(tǒng)、新興測定方法,并對比了不同評價手段的優(yōu)缺點.傳統(tǒng)的水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性評價方法操作繁瑣、周期長、再現(xiàn)性差,難以準(zhǔn)確地反映水質(zhì)穩(wěn)定性.流式細(xì)胞術(shù)與分子生物學(xué)技術(shù)的應(yīng)用促進(jìn)了水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性評價方法的發(fā)展.基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的AOC、TCC、ATP評價方法不僅操作簡單、快速準(zhǔn)確,而且較為經(jīng)濟(jì),有望在水質(zhì)監(jiān)測和工程應(yīng)用中推廣.DGGE和焦磷酸測序等新興分子生物學(xué)評價手段可以深入了解水處理及管網(wǎng)輸配過程水環(huán)境中微生物組成變化,為從根本上探究水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性指明了方向.
生物穩(wěn)定性;評價方法;流式細(xì)胞儀;分子生物學(xué);飲用水;水質(zhì)
水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性關(guān)系到飲用水水質(zhì)安全.在給水管網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)中,不受控制的生物再生過程會導(dǎo)致水質(zhì)惡化,衛(wèi)生指標(biāo)超標(biāo)、口感不佳,還會導(dǎo)致過濾器堵塞、管道生物腐蝕等[1].出廠水水質(zhì)若不穩(wěn)定還會為致病菌增殖提供相對豐富的微環(huán)境,惡化管網(wǎng)水質(zhì),危害人體健康[2].因此,提高飲用水水質(zhì)的生物穩(wěn)定性、控制微生物再繁殖具有重要意義.
傳統(tǒng)的飲用水水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性評價方法主要集中于評價水體的微生物生長潛能.現(xiàn)行飲用水水質(zhì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)對生物穩(wěn)定性方面提出更嚴(yán)格的要求,同時,新興分析方法尤其是分子生物學(xué)方面分析技術(shù)的崛起促進(jìn)了生物穩(wěn)定性評價方法的發(fā)展.本文針對生物穩(wěn)定性評價方法進(jìn)行了綜述與分析,包括生物穩(wěn)定性評價指標(biāo)及傳統(tǒng)評價方法、基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的新興評價方法、變性梯度凝膠電泳和焦磷酸測序等新興分子生物學(xué)評價方法.從測定原理及應(yīng)用實例等方面歸納總結(jié)了不同評價方法的優(yōu)缺點以及今后的發(fā)展趨勢.
目前,國內(nèi)外用于評價飲用水水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性的指標(biāo)主要有基于培養(yǎng)法的異養(yǎng)菌平板計數(shù)(heterotrophic plate counts, HPC)、可生物降解有機(jī)碳(biodegradable dissolved organic carbon, BDOC)、可生物同化有機(jī)碳(assimilable organic carbon, AOC),不依賴培養(yǎng)的總細(xì)胞濃度(total cell concentration, TCC)和三磷酸腺苷計數(shù)(adenosine tri-phosphate, ATP)等.
1.1 異養(yǎng)菌平板計數(shù)
異養(yǎng)菌平板計數(shù)(HPC)是指在特定條件下培養(yǎng)細(xì)菌,利用顯微鏡觀察細(xì)菌數(shù)來評價水體的微生物生長潛能.HPC作為微生物參數(shù)來評估和監(jiān)測飲用水水質(zhì)已有100余年的歷史,目前仍是國際上評價水質(zhì)微生物量的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)方法[3-5].
傳統(tǒng)的HPC測定采用傾倒接種法,以平板計數(shù)瓊脂(plate count agar, PCA)為培養(yǎng)基,培養(yǎng)接種細(xì)菌并觀察細(xì)菌生長數(shù)量.該方法技術(shù)穩(wěn)定,但PCA具有選擇性,不能檢出產(chǎn)色素菌,而且傾倒法存在熱沖擊、轉(zhuǎn)種培養(yǎng)不便等缺點[6].改進(jìn)后的R2A培養(yǎng)基營養(yǎng)成分較PCA豐富且含量低,適合產(chǎn)色素菌生長,還能夠促進(jìn)受損細(xì)菌的恢復(fù)性再生長、提高飲用水中細(xì)菌總數(shù)檢出率,已成功用于檢測飲用水水樣、管道內(nèi)壁生物膜、污損反滲透膜內(nèi)的異養(yǎng)菌數(shù)量[7].濾膜計數(shù)法以m-SPC為培養(yǎng)基,可大大提高接種量,特別適用于分析低濁度水樣,但檢測結(jié)果受濾膜質(zhì)量等因素影響[8].
然而,越來越多的研究指出,HPC方法檢測所得的微生物量只占實際微生物量的一小部分,難以準(zhǔn)確反映水體中微生物量的變化[9-12].這是因為天然水環(huán)境中的大多數(shù)微生物不能用平板法進(jìn)行培養(yǎng),而且水體中還可能存在大量的自養(yǎng)菌.此外,HPC方法的分析結(jié)果受培養(yǎng)基的種類、培養(yǎng)時間、培養(yǎng)溫度影響較大.但HPC方法操作簡單,檢測成本低,且已被廣泛接受,因此,仍被廣泛用于飲用水水質(zhì)微生物風(fēng)險評估[12].
1.2 可生物降解有機(jī)碳
可生物降解有機(jī)碳(BDOC)是溶解性有機(jī)碳(dissolved organic carbon, DOC)的一部分,指水體中能被異養(yǎng)菌代謝和利用的溶解性有機(jī)碳,是20世紀(jì)末評估水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性的主要指標(biāo)之一[13].BDOC的測定方法由Servais等[14]發(fā)明,將待測水樣經(jīng)2m的濾膜過濾去除水樣中微生物后接種一定量同源細(xì)菌,在恒溫條件下培養(yǎng)并測定培養(yǎng)前后DOC的差值.
Servais等[15]認(rèn)為當(dāng)出廠水BDOC≤0.16 mg/L時,即使管網(wǎng)中沒有消毒劑殘余也會保證其水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性.Volk等[16]認(rèn)為水溫分別在20和15 ℃時,對應(yīng)的BDOC值不高于0.15和0.3 mg/L時,都能保證水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性.van der Kooij等[17]卻認(rèn)為BDOC指標(biāo)不能用于預(yù)測管網(wǎng)水的微生物再繁殖水平,因為BDOC參數(shù)與異養(yǎng)菌計數(shù)參數(shù)幾乎沒有相關(guān)性.Kaplan等[18]認(rèn)為BDOC側(cè)重于預(yù)測出廠水需氯量及消毒副產(chǎn)物的潛在生成量,可生物同化有機(jī)碳(AOC)更能夠評價微生物的再生水平.
事實上,BDOC的檢測方法限制了其作為生物穩(wěn)定性評價指標(biāo)的應(yīng)用.BDOC的檢出限由總有機(jī)碳分析儀決定,其測得的初始總有機(jī)碳(total organic carbon, TOC)值和最終TOC值非常相近,使得BDOC的檢出限偏高(0.1~0.2 mg/L),遠(yuǎn)低于AOC的測定精度[19].另外,BDOC最終礦化成CO2或同化成生物碳,因此,只有部分BDOC用于微生物再繁殖.目前,BDOC主要用來預(yù)測和衡量水處理單元特別是生物處理單元對有機(jī)物的去除效率,以及預(yù)測出廠水需氯量和消毒副產(chǎn)物的潛在生成量.
1.3 可生物同化有機(jī)碳
可生物同化有機(jī)碳(AOC)是指溶解性有機(jī)碳中能被微生物同化成自身菌體的部分,代表了最容易被生物降解的有機(jī)碳[20],是近20年來國內(nèi)外評價飲用水水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性的主要指標(biāo)之一.van der Kooij等[17]發(fā)現(xiàn)出廠水AOC濃度與管網(wǎng)中的異養(yǎng)菌數(shù)有很大的相關(guān)性,最先提出以AOC作為水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性評價指標(biāo),并得到一個指導(dǎo)性的結(jié)論:當(dāng)AOC質(zhì)量濃度低于10 μg/L乙酸碳時,異養(yǎng)細(xì)菌幾乎不能生長,飲用水水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性良好.LeChevallier 等[21]認(rèn)為在余氯質(zhì)量濃度大于0.5 mg/L或者氯胺質(zhì)量濃度大于1 mg/L的管網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)中,當(dāng)AOC質(zhì)量濃度低于50~100 μg/L時,大腸桿菌的生長受到限制.
最早的AOC測定方法由van der Kooij提出,即在巴氏滅菌后的待測水樣中接種50~500 cfu/mL熒光假單胞菌P17,于15 ℃恒溫培養(yǎng)期間通過平板計數(shù)獲得培養(yǎng)的細(xì)菌數(shù),再根據(jù)生長因子換算成乙酸碳濃度[22- 23].之后, Kooij又增加一種可利用草酸的螺旋菌NOX作為測試菌種,將AOC的測定精度提高到微克級,但 Kooij 的測定方法操作復(fù)雜、實驗周期長.LeChevallier 等[24]將培養(yǎng)溫度提高到25 ℃,接種濃度增加至104cfu/mL,兩種測試菌在培養(yǎng) 2~3 d后達(dá)到穩(wěn)定期,改進(jìn)后的培養(yǎng)方法大大地縮短了培養(yǎng)時間,在AOC 測定中被廣泛采用.
但是,近年來有學(xué)者質(zhì)疑AOC作為評價生物穩(wěn)定性指標(biāo)的客觀性.研究表明,每消耗10 μg/L的有機(jī)碳,會導(dǎo)致每毫升水體中104~105個細(xì)菌生長[10,25-26].即當(dāng)AOC濃度低于檢出限時,仍然可能有大量的微生物增長.且AOC只是被異養(yǎng)菌消耗,當(dāng)水體中由于自養(yǎng)菌(如一些反硝化細(xì)菌和大多數(shù)氨氧化細(xì)菌)的繁殖而引起水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性失衡時,AOC指標(biāo)便失去指導(dǎo)意義[27].事實上,AOC依然是控制及優(yōu)化某些特定水處理過程的有效評價參數(shù),同時也是出廠水進(jìn)入管網(wǎng)前的主要評價指標(biāo).Lautenschlager等[27]認(rèn)為將AOC與總細(xì)胞濃度(TCC)、三磷酸腺苷(ATP)等評價指標(biāo)結(jié)合,多參數(shù)評價水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性,在保證水質(zhì)安全和穩(wěn)定方面更具指導(dǎo)意義.
1.4 其他綜合評價指標(biāo)
總細(xì)胞濃度(TCC)指單位體積水體中存在的細(xì)菌數(shù)量,是表征微生物數(shù)量的直接參數(shù),通過細(xì)菌直接計數(shù)測得.與表征可培養(yǎng)細(xì)菌總數(shù)的HPC相比,TCC還包括了“活的不可培養(yǎng)”的細(xì)菌數(shù),因而能更為全面地評價水體中的微生物水平.早期TCC的測定主要借助顯微鏡來進(jìn)行細(xì)胞觀察計數(shù),隨后落射熒光顯微術(shù)的日趨成熟推動了細(xì)菌直接計數(shù)技術(shù)的發(fā)展,但仍存在儀器操作、顯微鏡使用復(fù)雜,多種染色程序、數(shù)字圖像分析耗時等缺點[28],限制了TCC作為生物穩(wěn)定性評價指標(biāo)的大規(guī)模應(yīng)用.
三磷酸腺苷(ATP)是微生物細(xì)胞的“能量貨幣”,存在于所有活細(xì)胞中.研究表明,水中ATP含量與活細(xì)胞數(shù)量呈正相關(guān)關(guān)系,通過測定ATP含量可間接反映水環(huán)境中的活性生物量[29].ATP計數(shù)法即利用生物發(fā)光技術(shù)來測定微生物中的ATP量,測試原理是在待測水樣中加入一定比例的細(xì)胞裂解液,細(xì)胞裂解后釋放出ATP,在酶、氧氣、ATP的參與下發(fā)生酶促反應(yīng),放出光子并產(chǎn)生固定波長的熒光,再利用熒光檢測儀檢測熒光信號獲得相對光單位(relative light units,RLU)數(shù)值.利用已知的ATP校準(zhǔn)曲線即可將RLU值轉(zhuǎn)換成ATP濃度.該方法不需要生物培養(yǎng)過程,檢測快、操作簡便、成本較低[30],而且可以檢測水樣中不能培養(yǎng)的微生物,相較于HPC法具有明顯的優(yōu)勢.但由于測得的ATP濃度難以直觀地表達(dá)活菌數(shù),需要通過轉(zhuǎn)換因子——單位細(xì)胞的ATP量(ATP-per-cell)或單位細(xì)胞體積的ATP量(ATP-per-biovolume)換算得到待測水體中的生物量[31].而轉(zhuǎn)換因子的確定方式復(fù)雜且尚存爭議,這使得傳統(tǒng)的ATP計數(shù)法在實驗研究和常規(guī)檢測中受到一定的限制.
流式細(xì)胞術(shù)是一種對快速直線流動狀態(tài)的單列細(xì)胞或生物顆粒進(jìn)行逐個、多參數(shù)、快速地定性、定量分析或分選的分析方法,具有檢測速度快、測量參數(shù)多、采集數(shù)據(jù)量大、分選純度高、分析全面、方法靈活等特點[32].流式細(xì)胞儀(flow cytometer,F(xiàn)CM) 是以流式細(xì)胞術(shù)為核心技術(shù)發(fā)展的分析測試儀器,其應(yīng)用于飲用水水質(zhì)微生物檢測使得快速測定水樣中細(xì)菌數(shù)得以實現(xiàn),可以用于測定水樣總細(xì)胞濃度,還能計數(shù)活性細(xì)胞和抗體細(xì)胞[33].
流式細(xì)胞儀由液流系統(tǒng)、光學(xué)系統(tǒng)、信號收集與轉(zhuǎn)換系統(tǒng)和分析系統(tǒng)組成.圖1為4參數(shù)流式細(xì)胞儀的工作原理[34].如圖1所示,染色后的細(xì)胞或顆粒懸浮液進(jìn)入液流系統(tǒng),在鞘液的包被下細(xì)胞或顆粒單行排列,依次進(jìn)入檢測區(qū),聚焦激光束垂直照射樣品流,產(chǎn)生散射光和激發(fā)熒光,被前向光電二極管(photodiode, PD)和側(cè)向90°方向的光電倍增管(photomultiplier tube, PMT)接收.前向光電二極管獲得前散射信號(forward light scatter, FSC),側(cè)向光電倍增管獲得側(cè)散射信號(side light scatter, SSC)和熒光信號(FL1, FL3等).FSC能夠反映細(xì)胞或顆粒的尺寸和折射率,SSC反映細(xì)胞內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu),熒光信號則反映被標(biāo)記細(xì)胞的生物特異性.測得不同參數(shù)的信號強(qiáng)度可用于區(qū)分各樣品的亞種群,例如分析白血球樣品時,散射光信號可以用來區(qū)分單核細(xì)胞、淋巴細(xì)胞和粒性白細(xì)胞,再通過熒光信號分析細(xì)胞表面的抗原進(jìn)一步區(qū)分細(xì)胞[34].另外,不同染料與待測樣品中細(xì)胞特異性結(jié)合后,可獲得細(xì)胞總數(shù)、大小、活性、DNA含量等信息[9, 35].該方法測定水中細(xì)菌的檢測范圍為1×103~2×105cells/mL,濃度超過該范圍時對樣品進(jìn)行稀釋即可[36].
圖1 流式細(xì)胞儀基本原理Fig.1 Basic principle of flow cytometer
作為一個多功能的測試儀器,流式細(xì)胞儀應(yīng)用于飲用水水質(zhì)微生物檢測方面具有極大的優(yōu)勢.基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的AOC、TCC、ATP評價方法較傳統(tǒng)方法簡單快速、準(zhǔn)確度更高,受到越來越多研究者的關(guān)注,改進(jìn)的TCC測定方法已被瑞士推廣為細(xì)菌數(shù)檢測的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)方法[12].
2.1 基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的AOC評價方法
傳統(tǒng)的AOC測定方法采用平板計數(shù)來測量水樣培養(yǎng)前后的微生物量,操作繁瑣且耗時較長.Hammes等[37]提出全新的AOC測定方法,如圖2所示,以天然菌作為接種液,在經(jīng)0.22 μm濾膜過濾后的水樣中培養(yǎng)至穩(wěn)定期,利用流式細(xì)胞儀測定起始細(xì)菌濃度(cell conc. 1)和培養(yǎng)3 d后的細(xì)菌濃度(cell conc. 3),兩者的差值即為細(xì)菌增長量,再通過統(tǒng)一的轉(zhuǎn)換系數(shù)k來獲得AOC值.該方法具有明顯的優(yōu)勢,檢測時間大大縮短,而且操作簡單,不需要特殊的菌源.
圖2 基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的AOC測定方法Fig.2 Improved AOC measurement based on flow cytometry
2.2 基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的TCC評價方法
基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的TCC測定過程如圖3所示,水樣用經(jīng)0.22 μm濾膜過濾后的依云(Evian)水稀釋,加入1%的染料(SYBR Green I),在30 ℃黑暗環(huán)境下培養(yǎng)15 min左右,再用流式細(xì)胞儀測定[38].
圖3 基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的TCC測定方法Fig.3 Improved TCC measurement based on flow cytometry
流式細(xì)胞術(shù)的引入極大地促進(jìn)了TCC作為飲用水處理和管網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)中水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性評價指標(biāo)的推廣.基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的TCC評價方法具有多方面的優(yōu)勢[27, 38]:1)全面,其檢出數(shù)據(jù)比HPC高2個數(shù)量級,而且能檢測不能培養(yǎng)的細(xì)菌;2)靈敏,F(xiàn)CM能夠準(zhǔn)確地檢測出TCC低至5%的變化,相當(dāng)于常規(guī)水源水體0.5~5 μg/L的有機(jī)碳消耗,且檢出限低;3)穩(wěn)定,測試結(jié)果重現(xiàn)性好;4)省時,與HPC測定時間至少需要24 h相比,流式細(xì)胞儀計數(shù)僅需15 min.
Hammes等[38]以瑞士某飲用水處理廠O3-GAC-UF工藝為研究對象,通過對各個工藝進(jìn)出水取樣檢測,比較HPC、TCC、ATP 3個指標(biāo)用于評價水處理工藝微生物狀況的優(yōu)劣性,認(rèn)為基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的TCC評價方法不僅較大程度地縮短了檢測時間,而且能檢測出不能培養(yǎng)的細(xì)菌,較HPC、ATP指標(biāo)具有顯著的優(yōu)勢,這與Hoefel和Phe等[39-40]的研究結(jié)果一致.Lautenschlager等[27]對瑞士某大型管網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)中不同停留時間的管網(wǎng)點長期連續(xù)取樣檢測,利用多參數(shù)評價該管網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性.結(jié)果顯示利用流式細(xì)胞儀測得的TCC數(shù)據(jù)可靠,不僅能夠指示水質(zhì)惡化,還可以佐證AOC、TOC及HPC數(shù)據(jù).Siebel等[41]對實際給水管網(wǎng)取樣,研究了基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)方法測得的TCC、ATP及傳統(tǒng)的HPC指標(biāo)之間的相關(guān)性,發(fā)現(xiàn)ATP和TCC數(shù)據(jù)有較好的相關(guān)性,但二者與HPC的相關(guān)性均很弱.Liu等[42]的類似研究表明,TCC與ATP及HPC之間均沒有較好的相關(guān)性,但當(dāng)ATP質(zhì)量濃度大于3 ng/L時,高核酸細(xì)菌(HNA bacteria)的濃度與ATP存在一定的線性相關(guān)性,這可能是由于TCC在檢測較低濃度的生物量變化時較ATP更為靈敏.
TCC直接反映了水體中的微生物總量,對水質(zhì)穩(wěn)定性的評價具有重要意義.一些研究人員認(rèn)為基于流式細(xì)胞法的TCC指標(biāo)將會成為水處理過程及管網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)中水質(zhì)的常規(guī)監(jiān)測指標(biāo),同時可以作為某些水處理工藝的設(shè)計和優(yōu)化參數(shù)[38-39, 43-45].然而,由于TCC還可能含有失去活性的細(xì)菌,不能充分地描述紫外消毒等工藝的效能.因此,將TCC與反映活性生物量的ATP或完整細(xì)胞濃度(intact cell concentration, ICC)結(jié)合起來用于評估水質(zhì)微生物狀況更具有指導(dǎo)意義[38,41].
2.3 基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的ATP評價方法
流式細(xì)胞儀的應(yīng)用可較為準(zhǔn)確且相對簡單地確定ATP與細(xì)菌量的轉(zhuǎn)化系數(shù),克服了ATP 計數(shù)法的限制.水樣經(jīng)碘化丙啶(PI)染色后可以用FCM快速測得完整細(xì)胞濃度ICC,從而計算出ATP-per-cell,利用FCM SSC數(shù)據(jù)可以估算微生物細(xì)胞體積,進(jìn)而求得ATP-per-biovolume[31].
Hammes 等[31]在評價水環(huán)境中天然微生物群落活性時,分別從湖泊、溪流、地下水、管網(wǎng)中取大量水樣,利用基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的ATP評價方法,發(fā)現(xiàn)微生物細(xì)胞ATP濃度與ICC、完整細(xì)胞體積濃度相關(guān)性良好,但與HPC濃度沒有相關(guān)性.并擬合得出平均的ATP-per-cell為1.75×10-10nmol/cell,平均的ATP-per-cell為2.95×10-9nmol/μm3.Velten等[46]利用基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的ATP評價方法分析飲用水顆?;钚蕴可系纳锵?,得到ATP-per-cell值為(1.3~4.5)×10-10nmol/cell,與Magic-Knezev等[47]利用傳統(tǒng)的落射熒光顯微技術(shù)與ATP計數(shù)法結(jié)合所測得的顆?;钚蕴窟^濾器中細(xì)菌的ATP-per-cell(0.41×10-10nmol/cell)數(shù)值結(jié)果基本一致.
基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的ATP評價方法不僅簡化了轉(zhuǎn)化系數(shù)的確定過程,而且提高了測量精度,解決了制約ATP計數(shù)法推廣的主要難題.但其檢出限比較高,在檢測較低濃度的細(xì)菌量變化時沒有TCC靈敏;同時對于低核酸細(xì)菌( LNA bacteria),由于其每個細(xì)胞所含的ATP數(shù)量很少,很難用ATP法檢測其增長[27,48].此外,ATP檢出濃度還受細(xì)胞大小、細(xì)胞活性、細(xì)胞生存能力等影響[49].近年來,ATP計數(shù)法評價指標(biāo)已開始用于飲用水、地下水、生物濾池、管網(wǎng)生長環(huán)等水環(huán)境領(lǐng)域的生物量檢測[31].有研究人員認(rèn)為[9, 50],基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的ATP評價方法可以作為飲用水常規(guī)監(jiān)測手段,ATP評價指標(biāo)可以用于監(jiān)測飲用水工藝過程中微生物活性的改變.
測定飲用水處理工藝或管網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)中水體的AOC、TCC、ATP等指標(biāo)能獲得微生物生長潛能、細(xì)菌數(shù)量、活性等信息從而評價水質(zhì)變化,但不能分析水質(zhì)變化的根本原因.基于分子生物學(xué)技術(shù)的變性梯度凝膠電泳(denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, DGGE)和焦磷酸測序(pyrosequencing)等新興評價方法可以根據(jù)水環(huán)境中生物群落的多樣性、種屬及其豐度等信息,快速確定水質(zhì)細(xì)菌學(xué)變化,并從微生物生態(tài)學(xué)角度分析水質(zhì)變化的根本原因,更深入地評價水質(zhì)安全性和生物穩(wěn)定性.
3.1 變性梯度凝膠電泳法
變性梯度凝膠電泳(DGGE)可以通過分離DNA片段來獲得微生物群落指紋信息,是目前應(yīng)用最為廣泛的DNA指紋技術(shù).其基本原理是長度相同而堿基組成不同的微生物DNA序列在線性梯度濃度的DNA變性劑聚丙烯酰胺凝膠中發(fā)生解鏈,序列不同的DNA片段解鏈行為不同而導(dǎo)致其電泳遷移率不同[51],從而在凝膠上形成一系列電泳條帶,條帶的數(shù)量對應(yīng)于微生物群落中優(yōu)勢菌群的數(shù)量,條帶的多寡、亮度和位置則可以用來監(jiān)測微生物群落的改變,半定量地估計微生物種屬豐度.
基于聚合酶鏈?zhǔn)椒磻?yīng)(polymerase chain reaction, PCR)擴(kuò)增技術(shù)的DGGE(PCR-DGGE)由于可以通過直接的DNA提取獲得水樣中微生物群落指紋而被廣泛應(yīng)用.測試過程[52]如圖4所示,提取水樣中微生物DNA,得到不同菌群的DNA混合物;以該混合物為模板,與具有特異性的DNA引物對進(jìn)行PCR擴(kuò)增,得到長度相同而堿基組成不同的各生物菌群DNA擴(kuò)增子;通過DGGE技術(shù)將DNA擴(kuò)增子分開,得到一系列電泳條帶,即為待測水樣的微生物群落指紋;將電泳條帶割膠純化,在PCR擴(kuò)增后進(jìn)行測序,獲得微生物具體種屬信息[53].
圖4 PCR-DGGE測定流程示意Fig.4 Process of PCR-DGGE measurement
DGGE可以實現(xiàn)多樣品同時測定,并快速確定微生物群落結(jié)構(gòu)變化,深入分析飲用水生物穩(wěn)定性的變化及其根本原因.Sekar等[54]利用HPC和DGGE方法對比評價實際管網(wǎng)的水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性,發(fā)現(xiàn)DGGE更能反映管網(wǎng)水質(zhì)隨水力條件的變化.DGGE還可分析飲用水嗅味變化、評價不同給水處理工藝出水的細(xì)菌學(xué)水質(zhì),并被推薦用于描述和評價飲用水水質(zhì)變化[55-57].
3.2 焦磷酸測序
焦磷酸測序(Pyrosequencing)方法基于邊合成邊測序原理,通過磷酸法產(chǎn)生的光學(xué)信號分析獲得堿基信息,最終得到待測水樣中微生物的DNA序列.與已知DNA序列庫對照,可獲得微生物種屬及其豐度信息.其利用DNA聚合酶、ATP硫酸化酶、熒光素酶和雙磷酸酶的協(xié)同作用,將PCR反應(yīng)中每一個堿基的延伸與一次熒光信號的釋放偶聯(lián)起來,通過記錄熒光信號的有無和強(qiáng)度,達(dá)到實時測定DNA序列的目的.
利用焦磷酸測序法檢測水環(huán)境樣本,可以通過分析群落結(jié)構(gòu)變化來判斷水質(zhì)的生物穩(wěn)定性,同時根據(jù)優(yōu)勢菌屬信息確定引起管網(wǎng)水微生物再生的主要因素,還能夠利用獲得的細(xì)菌種類及豐度信息來分析水質(zhì)惡化的根源,以提出相應(yīng)的水質(zhì)優(yōu)化方案.
Defalont等[58]利用焦磷酸測序分析管網(wǎng)水體中微生物的相互關(guān)系,發(fā)現(xiàn)87.6%的變形蟲都負(fù)載了較多數(shù)量的潛在病原體分支桿菌.Pinto等[59]利用焦磷酸測序分析水源水質(zhì)及水處理單元對管網(wǎng)細(xì)菌群落結(jié)構(gòu)的影響,發(fā)現(xiàn)快速砂濾對管網(wǎng)水環(huán)境細(xì)菌的群落結(jié)構(gòu)起主要作用,可以利用過濾單元的微環(huán)境來控制微生物種類和數(shù)量,保證管網(wǎng)水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性.焦磷酸測序還可與DGGE指紋技術(shù)聯(lián)合用于評價飲用水水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性.Lautenschlager 等[27]利用DGGE和焦磷酸測序結(jié)合分析實際管網(wǎng)的水質(zhì)變化,得出停留時間較長的管網(wǎng)水樣水質(zhì)發(fā)生變化的根本原因是叢毛單胞菌屬的增加;同時發(fā)現(xiàn)DGGE和焦磷酸測序的分析結(jié)果與基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的TCC數(shù)據(jù)可以相互佐證,并認(rèn)為這兩個指標(biāo)可作為評價水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性的補(bǔ)充指標(biāo).
焦磷酸測序法能夠檢測豐度<1%的菌群,可提供微生物種屬及豐度信息,測試結(jié)果可靠,同時,其測試過程快速且操作簡單,是目前應(yīng)用最廣泛的第二代測序平臺.近年來,具有更高性價比的Illumina測序平臺受到研究者的關(guān)注,并有逐漸替代焦磷酸測序的潛能[12,60].
微生物群落分析專業(yè)性強(qiáng),成本較高,在評價飲用水水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性方面的應(yīng)用還較少,但是基于分子生物學(xué)技術(shù)的新興生物穩(wěn)定性評價方法可以深入地了解水處理過程及管網(wǎng)輸配過程水環(huán)境中微生物組成變化,對建立更完善的飲用水生物穩(wěn)定性評價指標(biāo)體系具有重要意義,為從根本上探究水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性指明了方向.
傳統(tǒng)的水質(zhì)生物穩(wěn)定性評價方法檢測成本低、操作簡單,為我國相關(guān)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)推薦的方法,但其存在準(zhǔn)確性差、分析結(jié)果局限等缺點;基于流式細(xì)胞術(shù)改進(jìn)的評價方法檢測耗時少,測定結(jié)果更為可靠,有望在水質(zhì)監(jiān)測和工程應(yīng)用中推廣.基于分子生物學(xué)的評價方法能夠準(zhǔn)確獲得水環(huán)境中微生物群落信息,從微生物生態(tài)學(xué)角度分析水質(zhì)變化的根本原因,但其儀器及檢測成本均較高,目前在水質(zhì)檢測方面應(yīng)用還較少.隨著DNA測序成本的逐漸降低以及自動化程度的提高,高通量測序有望成為水質(zhì)分析的輔助工具,為飲用水水質(zhì)安全提供有力的保障.
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(編輯 劉 彤)
Review article: Evaluation methods of biological stability in drinking water
LONG Zhiyun1,2, YANG Jiaxuan1,2, YANG Xiaohang3, JIA Ruokun3, ZHAO Ming1,2, MA Jun1,2
(1.State Key Lab of Urban Water Resource and Environment (Harbin Institute of Technology),Harbin 150090, China; 2.School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology,Harbin 150090, China;3.College of Chemical Engineering, Northeast Electric Power University, Jilin 132012, Jilin, China)
Biostability plays an important role in keeping drinking water quality and safety. Methods of biostability assessment are reviewed, including main indicators, traditional analytical methods and emerging ones. Merits and demerits of different analytical methods are discussed respectively. Time-consuming and inaccurate, traditional methods are acknowledged to be inadequate in the evaluation of drinking water quality. Improved methods, e.g. assimilable organic carbon (AOC), total cell concentration (TCC), adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) methods based on flow cytometry (FCM), are accurate, simple and economical, and thus have shown tremendous potential in water monitoring and engineering practice. Emerging molecular biological methods, e.g. denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and pyrosequencing, offer an insight into the changes of microbiology compositions in water treatments and distribution, and fundamentally reflect the biological stability of water quality.
biological stability; assessment method; flow cytometer; molecular method; drinking water; water quality
10.11918/j.issn.0367-6234.2017.02.001
2015-08-10
高等學(xué)校科技創(chuàng)新工程重大項目培育資金項目(7050013);黑龍江省應(yīng)用研究項目(GA13C302)
龍智云(1990—),女,碩士研究生; 馬 軍(1962—),男,博士生導(dǎo)師,長江學(xué)者特聘教授
趙 明,zhming1188@126.com; 馬 軍,majunhit@126.com
TU991.21
A
0367-6234(2017)02-0182-07